Novel d3 dopamine receptor agonists to treat dyskinesia in parkinson&#39;s disease

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides a method of inhibiting, suppressing or preventing levodopa-induced dyskinesia in a patient suffering from Parkinson&#39;s Disease, comprising the step of administering to the patient a pharmaceutical composition comprising at least one compound of the invention. The present invention further provides a method of inhibiting, suppressing or preventing Parkinson&#39;s Disease in a patient, comprising the step of administering to the patient a pharmaceutical composition comprising at least one compound of the invention.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S.patent application Ser. No. 13/957,861, filed Aug. 2, 2013, now allowed,which is a divisional of and claims priority to U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 13/764,623, filed Feb. 11, 2013, now issued as U.S. Pat. No.9,289,400, which is a 35 U.S.C. §371 national phase application from,and claims priority to International Application No. PCT/US2011/047263,filed Aug. 10, 2011, and published under PCT Article 21(2) in English,which claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) to U.S. ProvisionalApplication No. 61/372,733, filed Aug. 11, 2010, all of whichapplications are hereby incorporated by reference in their entiretiesherein.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The family of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) is one of the mostimportant classes of proteins from both functional and structuralstandpoints. The human genome contains nearly 950 genes coding forGPCRs, of which nearly 450 genes have been implicated as therapeutictargets. Ligand binding to GPCRs induces multiple receptor conformationsand different ligands may stabilize different receptor conformations(Kenakin & Miller, 2010, Pharmacol. Rev. 62(2):265-304). The concept offunctional selectivity is based on the hypothesis that differentreceptor conformations recruit different signaling proteins which leadsto preferential activation of one signaling pathway over another(Mailman, 2007, Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 28(8):390-396). In addition toselecting the signaling pathways, agonist-induced receptor conformationscan also potentially affect receptor signaling properties.

Among the GPCRs, the subfamily of dopamine receptors has attractedattention from biologists and pharmacologists. In the central nervoussystem, dopamine receptors are widely expressed and involved in thecontrol of locomotion, cognition, emotion and neuroendocrine secretion.In the peripheral system, dopamine receptors are present moreprominently in kidney, vasculature and pituitary, where they affectmainly sodium homeostasis, vascular tone, and hormone secretion. Whilethere are numerous examples of functionally-selective ligands, whichpreferentially activates one signaling cascade but not others,functionally-selective ligands that alter receptor signaling propertiesare rare and have not been described for dopamine receptors.

The neurotransmitter dopamine controls a wide variety of physiologicaland behavioral functions in mammals via five major subtypes of dopaminereceptors. They are broadly classified into the “D₁ like” and “D₂ like”dopamine receptors based on pharmacology and function. The D₁-likeconsists of D₁ and D₅ receptors, while the D₂-like consists of D₂, D₃,and D₄ receptors. The D₃ receptor primarily couples to the pertussistoxin-sensitive Gα-proteins (Gi/Go) (Ahlgren-Beckendorf & Levant, 2004,J. Recept. Signal Transduct. Res. 24(3):117-130). When transfected intodifferent cell lines, the D₃ receptor couples to adenylyl cyclase Visoform (Robinson & Caron, 1997, Mol. Pharmacol. 52:508-514) andinitiates signaling events including phosphorylation ofmitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases (Cussac et al., 1999, Mol.Pharmacol. 56(5):1025-103). D₂ and D₃ dopamine receptors also modulatepotassium and calcium channel function (Seabrook et al., 1994, Br. J.Pharmacol. 111:391-393; Werner et al., 1996, Mol. Pharmacol.49:656-661). Transfected D₃ receptors couple robustly to nativelyexpressed G-protein coupled inward rectifier potassium (GIRK) andvoltage-gated P/Q type calcium channels, and inhibit firing ofspontaneous action potentials and secretory activity in the AtT-20neuroendocrine cell line (Kuzhikandathil & Oxford, 1999, J. Neurosci.19(5):1698-1707; Kuzhikandathil & Oxford, 2000, J. Gen. Physiol.115:697-706; Kuzhikandathil et al., 1998, Mol. Cell Neurosci.12:390-402). The D₃ receptor further couples to natively expressedadenylyl cyclase V (Kuzhikandathil & Bartoszyk, 2006, Neuropharm.51:873-884), MAP kinases (Westrich & Kuzhikandathil, 2007, Biochim.Biophys. Acta-MCR 1773:1747-1758) and ion channels (Kuzhikandathil &Oxford, 1999, J. Neurosci. 19(5):1698-1707; Kuzhikandathil & Oxford,2000, J. Gen. Physiol. 115:697-706; Kuzhikandathil et al., 1998, Mol.Cell Neurosci. 12:390-402; Kuzhikandathil et al., 2004, Mol. CellNeurosci. 26:144-155) in AtT-20 cells.

The expression of D₃ dopamine receptor is altered under manypathological conditions and following chronic treatment. In Parkinson'sdisease, levodopa-induced dyskinesias are associated with a specific upregulation of D_(3R) expression in putamen and globus pallidus internalsegment, regions that normally express the D₂ receptor (Bezard et al.,2003, Nat. Med. 9(6):762-767; Guigoni et al., 2005, Parkinsonism RelatedDisorders 11 Suppl 1, S25-29). In rodent models, the behavioralsensitization associated with levodopa treatment is mediated byupregulated D₃ receptors (Guillin et al., 2001, Nature 411(6833):86-89).In schizophrenia, D₃ receptor expression levels are increased two foldin the basal ganglia. Antipsychotic treatment has also been reported tochange the expression of D₃ receptor. The density of D₃ receptor isincreased in chronic cocaine users in striatum and substantia nigra, aswell as in the nucleus accumbens. Stress and depression-induced downregulation of D₃ receptor expression is reversed following chronicantidepressant treatment.

Dopamine receptors are targets for the treatment of various neurologicaland psychiatric disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia,drug addiction, depression, bipolar disorder, attention deficithyperactivity syndrome, Tourette's syndrome, Huntington's disease andmigraine.

Parkinson's disease (also known as Parkinson disease) is a degenerativedisorder of the central nervous system that often impairs the sufferer'smotor skills, speech, and other functions (Jankovic, 2008, J. Neurol.Neurosurg. Psychiatr. 79(4):368-76). Parkinson's Disease ischaracterized by muscle rigidity, tremor, a slowing of physical movement(bradykinesia) and a loss of physical movement (akinesia) in extremecases. The primary symptoms of Parkinson's Disease are the results ofdecreased stimulation of the motor cortex by the basal ganglia, normallycaused by insufficient formation and action of dopamine, which isproduced in the dopaminergic neurons of the brain (specifically thesubstantia nigra). Secondary symptoms may include high level cognitivedysfunction and subtle language problems. Parkinson's Disease is bothchronic and progressive. At present, there is no cure for Parkinson'sDisease, but medications may provide relief from the symptoms.

The most widely used form of treatment is L-dopa (levodopa). Levodopa istransformed into dopamine by L-aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (alsoknown as dopa-decarboxylase) in the dopaminergic neurons. However, only1-5% of levodopa enters the dopaminergic neurons. The remaining levodopais often metabolized to dopamine elsewhere, causing a wide variety ofside effects (“Symptomatic pharmacological therapy in Parkinson'sdisease”. Parkinson's Disease. London: Royal College of Physicians,2006, pp. 59-100). Due to feedback inhibition, levodopa administrationresults in a reduction of the endogenous formation of levodopa, and soeventually becomes counterproductive. Levodopa may also beco-administered with carbidopa((2S)-3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-2-hydrazino-2-methylpropanoic acid), whichprevents levodopa metabolism elsewhere in the body. The dopamineagonists bromocriptine, pergolide, pramipexole, ropinirole, piribedil,cabergoline, apomorphine, and lisuride have been found to be moderatelyeffective.

Levodopa-induced dyskinesia (LID) is a particularly serious side effectof the long-term use of levodopa. These motor fluctuations occur in morethan half of Parkinson's Disease patients after 5-10 years of levodopatreatment, with the percentage of affected patients increasing overtime, and LID is thought to be potentially irreversible. Dyskinesia mostcommonly occurs at the time of peak levodopa plasma concentrations andis thus referred to as peak-dose dyskinesia. As patients advance, theymay evidence diphasic dyskinesia, which occurs when the drugconcentration rises or falls. Attempts to moderate dyskinesia by the useof other treatments, such as bromocriptine (Parlodel™), appear to beineffective. In order to avoid dyskinesia, patients with the young-onsetform of the disease are often hesitant to commence levodopa therapyuntil absolutely necessary for fear of suffering severe dyskinesia lateron. Currently, there is no pharmacotherapeutic means of treating LID inpatients suffering from Parkinson's Disease.

Interestingly, there is an alteration of dopamine receptor expression inmost disorders associated with the dopaminergic system, such asParkinson's Disease. Changes in dopamine receptor expression are alsoobserved following chronic treatment of these neurological andpsychiatric disorders. In the case of D₃ dopamine receptor, changes inexpression have been reported in Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia,depression, and drug addiction. Following chronic drug treatment,studies have reported an upregulation of D₃ receptor in LID inParkinson's disease and antipsychotic-induced tardive dyskinesia inschizophrenia.

The ability of using levodopa as a therapeutic agent in the treatment ofParkinson's Disease is severely hampered by the likelihood thatlevodopa-induced dyskinesia (LID) will eventually develop. There is aneed in the art for novel therapeutic agents that treat, ameliorate orprevent levodopa-induced dyskinesia in patients suffering fromParkinson's Disease. The present invention fulfills this need.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention includes a pharmaceutical composition comprising at leastone pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and at least one compoundselected from the group consisting of:

a compound of formula (I):

wherein in formula (I):

-   -   R¹, R² and R³ are independently selected from the group        consisting of H, cyano, hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo,        alkoxy, nitro, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl,        heterocyclyl, substituted heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl,        aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, carboxy,        alkylcarboxy, formyl, alkyl-carbonyl, aryl-carbonyl, and        heteroaryl-carbonyl;    -   R⁴ and R⁵ are independently selected from the group consisting        of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl,        heterocyclyl, substituted heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl,        aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, and substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl; and,    -   n is 2, 3, 4 or 5;        a compound of formula (IIa) or (IIb):

wherein in formula (IIa) or (IIb):

-   -   R¹ and R² are independently selected from the group consisting        of H, cyano, hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo, alkoxy, nitro,        C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl, heterocyclyl,        substituted heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl,        aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, carboxy,        alkylcarboxy, formyl, alkyl-carbonyl, aryl-carbonyl, and        heteroaryl-carbonyl;    -   R³ and R⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting        of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, and substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl;    -   R⁵ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl,        substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl, heterocyclyl, substituted        heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl, aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, and        substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl; and,    -   m is 1, 2, 3 or 4;        2,7-diamino-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-oxo-3,4,5,6-tetrahydropyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine-6-carbonitrile;        (Z)-2-(1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-yl)-N′-hydroxy-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)propanimidamide;        mixtures thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In one embodiment, in formula (I) R¹, R² and R³ are independentlyselected from the group consisting of H, cyano, halo, alkoxy, nitro,C₁₋₆ alkyl, and carboxy. In another embodiment, in formula (I) R⁴ and R⁵are independently selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl,and substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In yet another embodiment, in formula (I) nis 2. In yet another embodiment, in formula (IIa) or (IIb) m is 1 or 2.

In one embodiment, the at least one compound is selected from the groupconsisting of: 2-amino-4-(2-chlorophenyl)butan-1-ol;2-(3-aminohexyl)phenol; 4-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-butane (alsoknown as 4-(2-chlorophenyl)-N-methylbutan-2-amine);4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amine; 4-(2-fluorophenyl)butan-2-amine;4-(2-bromophenyl)butan-2-amine; 4-(2-iodophenyl)butan-2-amine;4-(2-methoxyphenyl)butan-2-amine; 2-(3-aminobutyl)phenol;3-(3,4-diethoxyphenyl)propan-1-amine; 4-(4-chlorophenyl)butan-2-amine;4-(4-methoxyphenyl)butan-2-amine;2-(5-chloro-1-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)ethanamine;1-(5-fluoro-1-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)propan-2-amine;1-(5-methoxy-1-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)propan-2-amine;2,7-diamino-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-oxo-3,4,5,6-tetrahydropyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine-6-carbonitrile;(Z)-2-(1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-yl)-N′-hydroxy-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)propanimidamide;mixtures thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

The invention also includes a method of treating, ameliorating orpreventing levodopa-induced dyskinesia in a patient suffering fromParkinson's Disease. The method comprises administering to the patient apharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutically effective amountof at least one compound selected from the group consisting of: acompound of formula (I):

wherein in formula (I):

-   -   R¹, R² and R³ are independently selected from the group        consisting of H, cyano, hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo,        alkoxy, nitro, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl,        heterocyclyl, substituted heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl,        aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, carboxy,        alkylcarboxy, formyl, alkyl-carbonyl, aryl-carbonyl, and        heteroaryl-carbonyl;    -   R⁴ and R⁵ are independently selected from the group consisting        of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl,        heterocyclyl, substituted heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl,        aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, and substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl; and,    -   n is 2, 3, 4 or 5;        a compound of formula (IIa) or (IIb):

wherein in formula (IIa) or (IIb):

-   -   R¹ and R² are independently selected from the group consisting        of H, cyano, hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo, alkoxy, nitro,        C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl, heterocyclyl,        substituted heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl,        aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, carboxy,        alkylcarboxy, formyl, alkyl-carbonyl, aryl-carbonyl, and        heteroaryl-carbonyl;    -   R³ and R⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting        of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, and substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl;    -   R⁵ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl,        substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl, heterocyclyl, substituted        heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl, aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, and        substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl; and,    -   m is 1, 2, 3 or 4;        2,7-diamino-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-oxo-3,4,5,6-tetrahydropyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine-6-carbonitrile;        (Z)-2-(1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-yl)-N′-hydroxy-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)propanimidamide;        mixtures thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In one embodiment, in formula (I) R¹, R² and R³ are independentlyselected from the group consisting of H, cyano, halo, alkoxy, nitro,C₁₋₆ alkyl, and carboxy. In another embodiment, in formula (I) R⁴ and R⁵are independently selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl,and substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In yet another embodiment, in formula (I) nis 2. In yet another embodiment, in formula (IIa) or (IIb) m is 1 or 2.

In one embodiment, the at least one compound is selected from the groupconsisting of: 2-amino-4-(2-chlorophenyl)butan-1-ol;2-(3-aminohexyl)phenol; 4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amine;4-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-butane;4-(2-fluorophenyl)butan-2-amine; 4-(2-bromophenyl)butan-2-amine;4-(2-iodophenyl)butan-2-amine; 4-(2-methoxyphenyl)butan-2-amine;2-(3-aminobutyl)phenol; 3-(3,4-diethoxyphenyl)propan-1-amine;4-(4-chlorophenyl)butan-2-amine; 4-(4-methoxyphenyl)butan-2-amine;2-(5-chloro-1-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)ethanamine;1-(5-fluoro-1-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)propan-2-amine;1-(5-methoxy-1-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)propan-2-amine;2,7-diamino-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-oxo-3,4,5,6-tetrahydropyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine-6-carbonitrile;(Z)-2-(1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-yl)-N′-hydroxy-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)propanimidamide;mixtures thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In one embodiment, the composition further comprises a drug selectedfrom the group consisting of levodopa, clozapine, bromocriptine,pergolide, pramipexole, ropinirole, piribedil, cabergoline, apomorphine,and lisuride, a salt thereof and mixtures thereof.

In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition is co-administered tothe patient with a second pharmaceutical composition comprisinglevodopa.

In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition is administered to thepatient a given period of time before a second pharmaceuticalcomposition comprising levodopa is administered to the patient.

In one embodiment, the given period of time varies from about 2 minutesto about 24 hours.

In one embodiment, the patient is human.

The invention further includes a method of treating, ameliorating orpreventing Parkinson's Disease in a patient. The method comprisesadministering to the patient a pharmaceutical composition comprising atherapeutically effective amount of at least one compound selected fromthe group consisting of:

a compound of formula (I):

wherein in formula (I):

-   -   R¹, R² and R³ are independently selected from the group        consisting of H, cyano, hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo,        alkoxy, nitro, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl,        heterocyclyl, substituted heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl,        aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, carboxy,        alkylcarboxy, formyl, alkyl-carbonyl, aryl-carbonyl, and        heteroaryl-carbonyl;    -   R⁴ and R⁵ are independently selected from the group consisting        of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl,        heterocyclyl, substituted heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl,        aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, and substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl; and,    -   n is 2, 3, 4 or 5;        a compound of formula (IIa) or (IIb):

wherein in formula (IIa) or (IIb):

-   -   R¹ and R² are independently selected from the group consisting        of H, cyano, hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo, alkoxy, nitro,        C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl, heterocyclyl,        substituted heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl,        aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, carboxy,        alkylcarboxy, formyl, alkyl-carbonyl, aryl-carbonyl, and        heteroaryl-carbonyl;    -   R³ and R⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting        of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, and substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl;    -   R⁵ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl,        substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl, heterocyclyl, substituted        heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl, aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, and        substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl; and,    -   m is 1, 2, 3 or 4;        2,7-diamino-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-oxo-3,4,5,6-tetrahydropyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine-6-carbonitrile;        (Z)-2-(1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-yl)-N′-hydroxy-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)propanimidamide;        mixtures thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In one embodiment, the at least one compound is selected from the groupconsisting of: 2-amino-4-(2-chlorophenyl)butan-1-ol;2-(3-aminohexyl)phenol; 4-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-butane;4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amine; 4-(2-fluorophenyl)butan-2-amine;4-(2-bromophenyl)butan-2-amine; 4-(2-iodophenyl)butan-2-amine;4-(2-methoxyphenyl)butan-2-amine; 2-(3-aminobutyl)phenol;3-(3,4-diethoxyphenyl)propan-1-amine; 4-(4-chlorophenyl)butan-2-amine;4-(4-methoxyphenyl)butan-2-amine;2-(5-chloro-1-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)ethanamine;1-(5-fluoro-1-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)propan-2-amine;1-(5-methoxy-1-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)propan-2-amine;2,7-diamino-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-oxo-3,4,5,6-tetrahydropyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine-6-carbonitrile;(Z)-2-(1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-yl)-N′-hydroxy-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)propanimidamide;mixtures thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In one embodiment, the composition further comprises at least one drugselected from the group consisting of levodopa, clozapine,bromocriptine, pergolide, pramipexole, ropinirole, piribedil,cabergoline, apomorphine, and lisuride, a salt thereof and mixturesthereof.

In one embodiment, the patient is further administered a secondpharmaceutical composition comprising at least one drug selected fromthe group consisting of levodopa, clozapine, bromocriptine, pergolide,pramipexole, ropinirole, piribedil, cabergoline, apomorphine, andlisuride, a salt thereof and mixtures thereof.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

For the purpose of illustrating the invention, there are depicted in thedrawings certain embodiments of the invention. However, the invention isnot limited to the precise arrangements and instrumentalities of theembodiments depicted in the drawings.

FIGS. 1A-1D illustrate representative voltage (FIGS. 1A and 1C) andcurrent (FIGS. 1B and 1D) clamp recording in AtT-20 cells stablyexpressing either human D_(2S) (FIGS. 1A and 1B) or D₃ (FIGS. 1C and1D). For voltage clamp recording (FIGS. 1A and 1C), the cells were heldat −65 mV and 100 nM dopamine (black bar) applied for 1 minute. Forcurrent clamp recording (FIGS. 1B and 1D), the spontaneous actionpotentials were hyperpolarized by one minute application of 100 nMquinpirole (QP), which is an agonist for D₂-like receptors.

FIGS. 2A-2C illustrate agonist-induced modulation of D₃ receptortolerance and SRT properties. Representative voltage clamp (FIG. 2A) andcurrent clamp recording (FIG. 2B) from AtT-D₃ cells treated with 300 nMPBZI ((3aS,9bR)-3-propyl-1,2,3a,4,5,9b-hexahydrobenzo[e]indol-8-ol) or100 nM quinpirole((4aR,8aR)-5-propyl-4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a,9-octahydro-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-g]quinoline)are illustrated. PBZI elicited 3 responses that did not show eithertolerance or SRT properties; on the same cell, quinpirole elicited GIRKresponse with tolerance and SRT. Similarly, representative voltage clamprecordings illustrated in FIG. 2C show that 300 nM FAUC73 (squarecrossed bar) induces GIRK currents that do not show D₃ receptortolerance and SRT. In contrast, in the same cell, 300 nM PD128907 (blackbar) elicited tolerance and SRT. The cells were held at −65 mV and theduration of agonist application was ˜60 seconds.

FIG. 3 is a flowchart illustration of the hybrid structure based (HSB)protocol that was used to design these novel D₃ agonists.

FIG. 4 illustrates the primary amino acid sequence alignment of D₃receptor (SEQ ID NO:1) with β2AR (pdb code 2RH1—coded as BADRE-2RH1; SEQID NO:2). Residues that form the TM helices are shown underlined.Identical residues are indicated by “*”, and similarity is indicated by“:” and “.”.

FIG. 5 is a schematic representation of PBZI binding to the D₃ receptorwith the pharmacophore elements superimposed. Unfilled ovals labeled“gr” represent hydrophobic elements, unfilled ovals labeled “pur”represent hydrogen bond donor-acceptor pairs, and distance constraintsare represented by dotted black lines. Hydrogen bonded interactions areshown by arrows, ionic interactions in lines and pi-pi interactions inlines extending across the two six membered rings. Gray spheres andcontours indicate matching regions between ligand and receptors.

FIGS. 6A-6D are a series of schemes illustrating the mode of interactionof ES609 (FIG. 6A), PD128907 (FIG. 6B), PBZI (FIG. 6C), and Dopamine(FIG. 6D). The binding site residues are colored by their nature, withhydrophobic residues in green (labeled gr), polar residues in purple(labeled pur), and charged residues highlighted with bold contours. Grayspheres and contours indicate matching regions between ligand andreceptors. Hydrogen bonded interactions are shown by arrows, ionicinteractions in lines and pi-pi interactions in lines extending acrossthe two six membered rings. The figures were generated using the LIGXmodule of MOE program. The 3D pharmacophore used to screen the moleculesis overlaid on the PBZI structure (FIG. 6C) with open red circlesrepresenting hydrophilic interactions (labeled red), blue open circlesrepresenting hydrophobic and aromatic interactions (labeled bl) andblack dotted lines representing distance between the pharmacophoreelements.

FIGS. 7A-7B are a set of molecular models illustrating that the HSBmethod allows for the identification of residues and conformationsinvolved in D₃ receptor tolerance and SRT properties. FIG. 7Aillustrates the structural super positioning of D₃ receptor bound toPD128907, PBZI and ES609, with the receptor represented in cartoonformat. The transmembrane helices are numbered 1 through 7 and the extraand intracellular loops are labeled EC1-EC3 and IC1-IC3 respectively.FIG. 7B illustrates a molecular model of dopamine D₃ receptor with4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amine (ES609) docked. The receptor isdepicted as ribbons, and the ligand is rendered in a space filled model.

FIG. 8 illustrates a flowchart for the experimental development plan.

FIGS. 9A-9C illustrate voltage clamp experiments. FIG. 9A illustrates arepresentative voltage clamp recording of D₃ receptor-induced GIRKresponse upon two sequential 100 nM dopamine (DA) treatment. The DA wasdissolved in extracellular solution with 30 mM potassium (to enhanceGIRK currents). Duration of agonist application is ˜60 seconds. Theratio of second to first GIRK response is a quantitative measure oftolerance. FIG. 9B is a graph bar that indicates that D₃ receptortolerance is elicited by 100 nM dopamine (DA), quinpirole (QP), andPD128907; but not by PBZI or 4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amine (ES609).FIG. 9 C is a graph bar illustrating that tolerance property of D₃receptor is agonist-dependent. Cumulative data showed the ratio of2^(nd) to 1^(st) agonist-induced GIRK response in AtT-20 cells stablyexpressing the human D3 dopamine receptor. GIRK responses were elicitedusing saturating concentration of dopamine (DA, 100 nM, N=5), quinpirole(100 nM, N=5), PD128907 (100 nM, N=5), 7OH-DPAT (100 nM, N=4), 7OH-PIPAT(100 nM, N=4), sarizotan (100 nM, N=6), pramipexole (300 nM, N=4),rotigotine (100 nM, N=4), PBZI (300 nM, N=10), and FAUC 73 (300 nM,N=4). Error bars represent ±SEM. *, **, P<0.05, ANOVA, post-hocHolm-Sidak test.

FIGS. 10A-10B illustrate representative voltage clamp recording showingthat PBZI (PEUN1) may compete with dopamine (DA) and prevent thedevelopment of tolerance and SRT at D₃ receptors expressed stably inAtT-20 cells. In FIG. 10A, 100 nM DA elicited D₃ receptor tolerance andSRT. In FIG. 10B, 1000 nM PBZI applied simultaneously with DA blockedthe development of tolerance and SRT.

FIGS. 11A-11B illustrate dose response curves for PBZI (FIG. 11A) and4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amine (ES609; FIG. 11B) in two differentfunctional assays. As illustrated in FIG. 11A, GIRK current response toPBZI in AtT-20 cells expressing D3 receptors was measured using wholecell voltage clamp recording. The current response was normalized forcell size (using membrane capacitance). FIG. 11B illustrates inhibitionof 10 μM forskolin induced cAMP levels by activation of D₃ receptors inAtT-20 cells with various doses of 4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amine. ThecAMP levels were measured by using an ELISA kit from GE Healthcare. Thetriangle in FIG. 11B illustrates the inhibition elicited by 300 nMquinpirole.

FIGS. 12A-12B illustrate the effects of PBZI and PD128907 on locomotionin Balb/c mice. As illustrated in FIG. 12A, PBZI induced adose-dependent and monophasic inhibition of locomotion. The horizontalarrows indicate the hypoactivity induced by 10 mg/kg, sc PBZI (circles)plotted in 10 minute bins. The 1 mg/kg dose (triangles) had nosignificant effect. The locomotor activity induced by PBZI wasnormalized to locomotor activity in control vehicle (saline) injectedmice. The data points indicated by the horizontal arrows showsstatistically significant reductions in locomotor activity (p=0.002,Newman-Keuls multiple (α=0.05), n=4 mice per treatment group) thatrecovers to control levels by 80 minutes. As illustrated in FIG. 12B, incontrast to PBZI, Balb/c mice administered 0.4 mg/kg, sc PD128907(circles, n=4) induces an initial hypoactivity (horizontal arrows) thatis followed by hyperactivity (area indicated by hatched rectangle),which returns to levels exhibited by saline injected mice (n=4) by 120minutes. A lower dose of PD128907 (0.05 mg/kg) elicited hypoactivity fora shorter duration (first 20 minutes) but elicited the same robusthyperactivity as the higher dose of PD128907. The PD128907-inducedlocomotor activity was normalized to locomotor activity in controlvehicle (saline) injected mice.

FIGS. 13A-13B illustrate the comparison of PBZI, PD128907(tolerance-inducing D₃ agonist) and control saline on 6 mg/kglevodopa-induced dyskinesia. The drugs were administered 10 minutesprior to levodopa injection. PD128907 increased AIMs score even beforethe levodopa was administered. PBZI delayed and reduced the dyskinesiainduced by levodopa (FIG. 13A). As illustrated in FIG. 13B, integrationof the area under the curves yields the total integrated AIMs scorewhich is significantly reduced by the administration of PBZI (*P<0.05,ANOVA, post-hoc Holm's test).

FIG. 14 is a bar graph illustrating the dose dependent improvement inforelimb bradykinesia following levodopa (L-DOPA) injection, measuredusing the forelimb stepping test. (*, P<0.01, ANOVA, post hoc Holm'stest).

FIG. 15 illustrates the time course of the in vivo experiments.

FIGS. 16A-16B illustrate the finding that activation of D₃ receptor bydopamine and PBZI modulates neuronal firing differently. FIG. 16Aillustrates representative current clamp recording in an AtT-20neuroendocrine cell stably expressing the human D3 dopamine receptor.Activation of the D3 receptor by 100 nM dopamine (black bar), dissolvedin standard external solution with 5 mM potassium, hyperpolarized thecell and inhibited the spontaneous action potentials during the firstapplication but not to second or third application. FIG. 16B illustratesthat activation of the D₃ receptor by 300 nM PBZI (gray hatched bar),dissolved in standard external solution with 5 mM potassium,hyperpolarized the cell and inhibited the spontaneous action potentialsduring the first and second treatment.

FIGS. 17A-17D are a set of graphs illustrating that the novel D₃receptor agonist, ES609, abolishes tolerance and SRT properties. In FIG.17A, representative voltage clamp recording showed that 100 nM ES609(cross hatched bar) induced GIRK currents that did not show toleranceand SRT in an AtT-20 cell stably expressing the human D₃ receptor. Incontrast, in the same cell, 100 nM quinpirole (QP, black bar) elicitedtolerance and SRT. In FIG. 17B, representative voltage clamp recordingshowed that neither 300 nM PBZI (hatched bar) nor 300 nM ES609 (crosshatched bar) induced GIRK currents in parental AtT-20 cells in theabsence of exogenous D₃ receptor expression. In FIG. 17C, representativevoltage clamp recording showed that 100 nM ES609 (cross hatched bar) and100 nM quinpirole (black bar) induced GIRK currents in AtT-20 cellstably expressing the human D_(2S) receptor. The ES609-induced GIRKcurrent was significantly less than the quinpirole-induced current inD2S receptor expressing cells. The cells were held at −65 mV and theduration of agonist application was ˜60 seconds. FIG. 17D illustratescumulative dose response of ES609-induced GIRK response in AtT-20 cellsstably expressing the human D3 receptor. The black filled circle is theGIRK response elicited by a saturating dose of quinpirole (QP, 300 nM)and showed that ES609 is a full agonist at the D₃ receptor. Error barsrepresent ±SEM. The GIRK currents were divided by cell capacitance tonormalize for cell size. The data points were fit with a four parameterHill equation.

FIG. 18 is a bar graph illustrating the finding that PBZI and ES609improve motor deficits in a rat PD model.

FIGS. 19A-19B are a pair of graphs illustrating the finding that PBZI &ES609 improve levodopa-induced dyskinesia in a rat PD model.

FIG. 20 is a bar graph illustrating the finding that atypical (but nottypical) D₃ receptor agonists prevent L-DOPA induced dyskinesia.

FIGS. 21A-21B are a set of graphs illustrating the effect of PBZI andES609 on neuron viability in hippocampal cultures (from Day 2 to Day 5in culture).

FIGS. 22A-22B are a set of graphs illustrating the effect of PBZI &ES609 on neuroprotection of hippocampal cells treated with 10 mMhydrogen peroxide for 4 hours.

FIGS. 23A-23B are a set of graphs illustrating the finding that ES609inhibits monoamine transporter uptake activity.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the discovery that signal transductionpathways for the D₃ dopamine receptor (amino acid sequence of SEQ IDNO:1) have specific tolerance and slow response termination (SRT)properties. In a neurological disorder that exhibits altered D₃ dopaminereceptor expression, the tolerance and slow response termination (SRT)properties are aberrantly expressed and might contribute to thepathology.

In a non-limiting aspect, agonist-induced tolerance in D₃ receptors isassociated with a unique conformational state of the receptor. Thisassociation suggested that the tolerance and SRT properties of the D₃receptor are ligand-dependent and that functionally-selective agoniststhat altered the tolerance-specific conformation would abolish thetolerance and SRT properties. Screening known D₃ receptor agonists anddetermining their ability to abolish the tolerance and SRT propertiesallowed the identification of two agonists, cis-8-OH-PBZI (PBZI) andFAUC 73, which while being full agonists at D₃ receptors, completelyabolished the receptors' tolerance and SRT properties. In order todistinguish these new D₃ receptor agonists from classical tolerance- andSRT-inducing agonists, they were collectively named atypical D3 receptoragonists. A pharmacophore model based on the interactions of PBZI withthe D₃ receptor was designed as an input to the Hybrid Structure Based(HSB) in silico screening method, allowing the identification of anadditional novel agonist, ES 609, which also abolished D₃ receptortolerance and SRT properties.

The present invention thus further relates to the discovery of novelfunctionally-selective D₃ dopamine receptor agonists that do not elicitthe tolerance and slow response termination properties of D₃ receptors.In one aspect, these agonists, rather than preferentially activatingsignaling pathways, modify the signaling properties of the receptor. Inanother aspect, this new class of atypical D₃ receptor agonistspharmacologically converts the D₃ receptor to the functional equivalentof a D₂ receptor.

The functional properties of this novel class of atypical D₃ receptoragonists was characterized by studying their ability to activate the D₃receptor-adenylyl cyclase and G-protein coupled inward rectifierpotassium channel signaling pathways. This novel family of D₃ agonistsmay be used to treat, ameliorate or prevent levodopa-induced dyskinesia(LID) in patients suffering from Parkinson's Disease, or neurologicaldisorders in which there is ectopic overexpression of D₃ receptors.

Definitions

As used herein, each of the following terms has the meaning associatedwith it in this section.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used hereingenerally have the same meaning as commonly understood by one ofordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Generally,the nomenclature used herein and the laboratory procedures in cellculture, molecular genetics, organic chemistry, and peptide chemistryare those well-known and commonly employed in the art.

As used herein, the articles “a” and “an” refer to one or to more thanone (i.e. to at least one) of the grammatical object of the article. Byway of example, “an element” means one element or more than one element.

As used herein, the term “about” will be understood by persons ofordinary skill in the art and will vary to some extent on the context inwhich it is used.

As used herein, the term “L-DOPA” refers to levodopa, also known asL-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine or a salt thereof.

As used herein, the term “quinpirole” or “QP” refers to(4aR,8aR)-5-propyl-4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a,9-octahydro-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-g]quinoloneor a salt thereof.

As used herein, the term “GR218231” refers to(+)-(2R)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-6-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl]methyl]-N,N-dipropyl-2-naphthalenamineor a salt thereof. As used herein, the term “PBZI” refers to(3aS,9bR)-3-propyl-1,2,3a,4,5,9b-hexahydrobenzo[e]indol-8-ol or a saltthereof.

As used herein, the term “clozapine” refers to8-chloro-11-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)-5H-dibenzo[b,e][1,4]diazepine or asalt thereof.

As used herein, the term “WST-1” refers to2-(4-iodophenyl)-3-(4-nitrophenyl)-5-(2,4-disulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium,monosodium salt or a salt thereof.

As used herein, the term “PD128907” refers to(4aR,10bR)-3,4a,4,10b-tetrahydro-4-propyl-2H,5H-[1]benzopyrano-[4,3-b]-1,4-oxazin-9-olhydrochloride or a salt thereof.

As used herein, the term “7OH-DPAT” refers to7-hydroxy-N,N-dipropyl-2-aminotetralin or a salt thereof.

As used herein, the term “6-OHDA” refers to 6-hydroxydopamine or a saltthereof.

As used herein, the term “pramipexole” refers to(S)—N⁶-propyl-4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-1,3-benzothiazole-2,6-diamine or a saltthereof.

As used herein, the term “rotigotine” refers to(S)-6-[propyl(2-thiophen-2-ylethyl)amino]-5,6,7,8-tetrahydronaphthalen-1-olor a salt thereof.

As used herein, the term “ES609” or “ES0609” refers to4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amine or a salt thereof.

As used herein, the term “sarizotan” refers to1-[(2R)-3,4-dihydro-2H-chromen-2-yl]-N-([5-(4-fluorophenyl)pyridin-3-yl]methyl)methanamineor a salt thereof.

As used herein, the term “FAUC73” refers to (4-ethynylcyclohex-3-enyl)dipropylamine or a salt thereof.

As used herein, the term “eticlopride” refers to3-chloro-5-ethyl-N-{[(2S)-1-ethylpyrrolidin-2-yl]methyl}-6-hydroxy-2-methoxybenzamide or a salt thereof

As used herein, the term “LID” refers to levodopa-induced dyskinesia.

As used herein, the term “tolerance property” as applying to the D₃receptor refers to the progressive decrease in receptor signalingfunction upon repeated stimulation by classical agonists, includingdopamine.

As used herein, the term “SRT property” or “slow response termination”as applying to the D₃ receptor refers to the increase in time taken toterminate the signaling function of the D₃ receptor, after removal ofthe agonist.

As used herein, the term “polypeptide” refers to a polymer composed ofamino acid residues, related naturally occurring structural variants,and synthetic non-naturally occurring analogs thereof linked via peptidebonds. Synthetic polypeptides may be synthesized, for example, using anautomated polypeptide synthesizer. As used herein, the term “protein”typically refers to large polypeptides. As used herein, the term“peptide” typically refers to short polypeptides. Conventional notationis used herein to represent polypeptide sequences: the left-hand end ofa polypeptide sequence is the amino-terminus, and the right-hand end ofa polypeptide sequence is the carboxyl-terminus.

As used herein, amino acids are represented by the full name thereof, bythe three letter code corresponding thereto, or by the one-letter codecorresponding thereto, as indicated below:

Full Name Three-Letter Code One-Letter Code Aspartic Acid Asp D GlutamicAcid Glu E Lysine Lys K Arginine Arg R Histidine His H Tyrosine Tyr YCysteine Cys C Asparagine Asn N Glutamine Gln Q Serine Ser S ThreonineThr T Glycine Gly G Alanine Ala A Valine Val V Leucine Leu L IsoleucineIle I Methionine Met M Proline Pro P Phenylalanine Phe F Tryptophan TrpW

As used herein, the term “treatment” or “treating,” is defined as theapplication or administration of a therapeutic agent, i.e., a compoundof the invention (alone or in combination with another pharmaceuticalagent), to a patient, or application or administration of a therapeuticagent to an isolated tissue or cell line from a patient (e.g., fordiagnosis or ex vivo applications), who has LID, a symptom of LID or thepotential to develop LID, with the purpose to cure, heal, alleviate,relieve, alter, remedy, ameliorate, improve or affect LID, the symptomsof LID or the potential to develop LID. The term “treatment” or“treating” is also defined as the application or administration of atherapeutic agent, i.e., a compound of the invention (alone or incombination with another pharmaceutical agent), to a patient, orapplication or administration of a therapeutic agent to an isolatedtissue or cell line from a patient (e.g., for diagnosis or ex vivoapplications), who has Parkinson's Disease, a symptom of Parkinson'sDisease or the potential to develop Parkinson's Disease, with thepurpose to cure, heal, alleviate, relieve, alter, remedy, ameliorate,improve or affect Parkinson's Disease, the symptoms of Parkinson'sDisease or the potential to develop Parkinson's Disease. Such treatmentsmay be specifically tailored or modified, based on knowledge obtainedfrom the field of pharmacogenomics.

As used herein, the term “prevent” or “prevention” means no disorder ordisease development if none had occurred, or no further disorder ordisease development if there had already been development of thedisorder or disease. Also considered is the ability of one to preventsome or all of the symptoms associated with the disorder or disease.

As used herein, the term “patient” or “subject” refers to a human or anon-human mammal. Non-human mammals include, for example, livestock andpets, such as ovine, bovine, porcine, canine, feline and murine mammals.Preferably, the patient or subject is human.

As used herein, the terms “effective amount,” “pharmaceuticallyeffective amount” and “therapeutically effective amount” refer to anontoxic but sufficient amount of an agent to provide the desiredbiological result. That result may be reduction and/or alleviation ofthe signs, symptoms, or causes of a disease, or any other desiredalteration of a biological system. An appropriate therapeutic amount inany individual case may be determined by one of ordinary skill in theart using routine experimentation.

As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable” refers to amaterial, such as a carrier or diluent, which does not abrogate thebiological activity or properties of the compound, and is relativelynon-toxic, i.e., the material may be administered to an individualwithout causing undesirable biological effects or interacting in adeleterious manner with any of the components of the composition inwhich it is contained.

As used herein, the language “pharmaceutically acceptable salt” refersto a salt of the administered compounds prepared from pharmaceuticallyacceptable non-toxic acids, including inorganic acids, organic acids,solvates, hydrates, or clathrates thereof. Examples of such inorganicacids are hydrochloric, hydrobromic, hydroiodic, nitric, sulfuric, andphosphoric. Appropriate organic acids may be selected, for example, fromaliphatic, aromatic, carboxylic and sulfonic classes of organic acids,examples of which are formic, acetic, propionic, succinic,camphorsulfonic, citric, fumaric, gluconic, isethionic, lactic, malic,mucic, tartaric, para-toluenesulfonic, glycolic, glucuronic, maleic,furoic, glutamic, benzoic, anthranilic, salicylic, phenylacetic,mandelic, embonic (pamoic), methanesulfonic, ethanesulfonic,pantothenic, benzenesulfonic (besylate), stearic, sulfanilic, alginic,galacturonic, and the like.

As used herein, the term “composition” or “pharmaceutical composition”refers to a mixture of at least one compound useful within the inventionwith a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The pharmaceuticalcomposition facilitates administration of the compound to a patient.Multiple techniques of administering a compound exist in the artincluding, but not limited to, intravenous, oral, aerosol, parenteral,ophthalmic, pulmonary and topical administration.

As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” means apharmaceutically acceptable material, composition or carrier, such as aliquid or solid filler, stabilizer, dispersing agent, suspending agent,diluent, excipient, thickening agent, solvent or encapsulating material,involved in carrying or transporting a compound useful within theinvention within or to the patient such that it may perform its intendedfunction. Typically, such constructs are carried or transported from oneorgan, or portion of the body, to another organ, or portion of the body.Each carrier must be “acceptable” in the sense of being compatible withthe other ingredients of the formulation, including the compound usefulwithin the invention, and not injurious to the patient. Some examples ofmaterials that may serve as pharmaceutically acceptable carriersinclude: sugars, such as lactose, glucose and sucrose; starches, such ascorn starch and potato starch; cellulose, and its derivatives, such assodium carboxymethyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose and cellulose acetate;powdered tragacanth; malt; gelatin; talc; excipients, such as cocoabutter and suppository waxes; oils, such as peanut oil, cottonseed oil,safflower oil, sesame oil, olive oil, corn oil and soybean oil; glycols,such as propylene glycol; polyols, such as glycerin, sorbitol, mannitoland polyethylene glycol; esters, such as ethyl oleate and ethyl laurate;agar; buffering agents, such as magnesium hydroxide and aluminumhydroxide; surface active agents; alginic acid; pyrogen-free water;isotonic saline; Ringer's solution; ethyl alcohol; phosphate buffersolutions; and other non-toxic compatible substances employed inpharmaceutical formulations. As used herein, “pharmaceuticallyacceptable carrier” also includes any and all coatings, antibacterialand antifungal agents, and absorption delaying agents, and the like thatare compatible with the activity of the compound useful within theinvention, and are physiologically acceptable to the patient.Supplementary active compounds may also be incorporated into thecompositions. The “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” may furtherinclude a pharmaceutically acceptable salt of the compound useful withinthe invention. Other additional ingredients that may be included in thepharmaceutical compositions used in the practice of the invention areknown in the art and described, for example in Remington'sPharmaceutical Sciences (Genaro, Ed., Mack Publishing Co., 1985, Easton,Pa.), which is incorporated herein by reference.

As used herein, the term “alkyl,” by itself or as part of anothersubstituent means, unless otherwise stated, a straight or branched chainhydrocarbon having the number of carbon atoms designated (i.e. C₁₋₆means one to six carbon atoms) and includes straight, branched chain, orcyclic substituent groups. Examples include methyl, ethyl, propyl,isopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, tert-butyl, pentyl, neopentyl, hexyl, andcyclopropylmethyl. Most preferred is (C₁-C₆)alkyl, particularly ethyl,methyl, isopropyl, isobutyl, n-pentyl, n-hexyl and cyclopropylmethyl.

As used herein, the term “substituted alkyl” means alkyl, as definedabove, substituted by one, two or three substituents selected from thegroup consisting of halogen, —OH, alkoxy, —NH₂, —N(CH₃)₂, —C(═O)OH,trifluoromethyl, —C≡N, —C(═O)O(C₁-C₄)alkyl, —C(═O)NH₂, —SO₂NH₂,—C(═NH)NH₂, and —NO₂, preferably containing one or two substituentsselected from halogen, —OH, alkoxy, —NH₂, trifluoromethyl, —N(CH₃)₂, and—C(═O)OH, more preferably selected from halogen, alkoxy and —OH.Examples of substituted alkyls include, but are not limited to,2,2-difluoropropyl, 2-carboxycyclopentyl and 3-chloropropyl.

As used herein, the term “alkoxy” employed alone or in combination withother terms means, unless otherwise stated, an alkyl group having thedesignated number of carbon atoms, as defined above, connected to therest of the molecule via an oxygen atom, such as, for example, methoxy,ethoxy, 1-propoxy, 2-propoxy (isopropoxy) and the higher homologs andisomers. Preferred are (C₁-C₃) alkoxy, particularly ethoxy and methoxy.

As used herein, the term “halo” or “halogen” alone or as part of anothersubstituent means, unless otherwise stated, a fluorine, chlorine,bromine, or iodine atom, preferably, fluorine, chlorine, or bromine,more preferably, fluorine or chlorine.

As used herein, the term “heteroalkyl” by itself or in combination withanother term means, unless otherwise stated, a stable straight orbranched chain alkyl group consisting of the stated number of carbonatoms and one or two heteroatoms selected from the group consisting ofO, N, and S, and wherein the nitrogen and sulfur atoms may be optionallyoxidized and the nitrogen heteroatom may be optionally quaternized. Theheteroatom(s) may be placed at any position of the heteroalkyl group,including between the rest of the heteroalkyl group and the fragment towhich it is attached, as well as attached to the most distal carbon atomin the heteroalkyl group. Examples include: —O—CH₂—CH₂—CH₃,—CH₂—CH₂—CH₂—OH, —CH₂—CH₂—NH—CH₃, —CH₂—S—CH₂—CH₃, and —CH₂CH₂—S(═O)—CH₃.Up to two heteroatoms may be consecutive, such as, for example,—CH₂—NH—OCH₃, or —CH₂—CH₂—S—S—CH₃

As used herein, the term “aromatic” refers to a carbocycle orheterocycle with one or more polyunsaturated rings and having aromaticcharacter, i.e. having (4n+2) delocalized π (pi) electrons, where n isan integer.

As used herein, the term “aryl,” employed alone or in combination withother terms, means, unless otherwise stated, a carbocyclic aromaticsystem containing one or more rings (typically one, two or three rings)wherein such rings may be attached together in a pendent manner, such asa biphenyl, or may be fused, such as naphthalene. Examples includephenyl, anthracyl, and naphthyl. Preferred are phenyl and naphthyl, mostpreferred is phenyl.

As used herein, the term “aryl-(C₁-C₃)alkyl” means a functional groupwherein a one to three carbon alkylene chain is attached to an arylgroup, e.g., —CH₂CH₂-phenyl. Preferred is aryl-CH₂— and aryl-CH(CH₃)—.The term “substituted aryl-(C₁-C₃)alkyl” means an aryl-(C₁-C₃)alkylfunctional group in which the aryl group is substituted. Preferred issubstituted aryl(CH₂)—. Similarly, the term “heteroaryl-(C₁-C₃)alkyl”means a functional group wherein a one to three carbon alkylene chain isattached to a heteroaryl group, e.g., —CH₂CH₂-pyridyl. Preferred isheteroaryl-(CH₂)—. The term “substituted heteroaryl-(C₁-C₃)alkyl” meansa heteroaryl-(C₁-C₃)alkyl functional group in which the heteroaryl groupis substituted. Preferred is substituted heteroaryl-(CH₂)—.

As used herein, the term “heterocycle” or “heterocyclyl” or“heterocyclic” by itself or as part of another substituent means, unlessotherwise stated, an unsubstituted or substituted, stable, mono- ormulti-cyclic heterocyclic ring system that consists of carbon atoms andat least one heteroatom selected from the group consisting of N, O, andS, and wherein the nitrogen and sulfur heteroatoms may be optionallyoxidized, and the nitrogen atom may be optionally quaternized. Theheterocyclic system may be attached, unless otherwise stated, at anyheteroatom or carbon atom that affords a stable structure. A heterocyclemay be aromatic or non-aromatic in nature. In one embodiment, theheterocycle is a heteroaryl.

As used herein, the term “heteroaryl” or “heteroaromatic” refers to aheterocycle having aromatic character. A polycyclic heteroaryl mayinclude one or more rings that are partially saturated. Examples includetetrahydroquinoline and 2,3-dihydrobenzofuryl.

Examples of non-aromatic heterocycles include monocyclic groups such asaziridine, oxirane, thiirane, azetidine, oxetane, thietane, pyrrolidine,pyrroline, imidazoline, pyrazolidine, dioxolane, sulfolane,2,3-dihydrofuran, 2,5-dihydrofuran, tetrahydrofuran, thiophane,piperidine, 1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine, 1,4-dihydropyridine, piperazine,morpholine, thiomorpholine, pyran, 2,3-dihydropyran, tetrahydropyran,1,4-dioxane, 1,3-dioxane, homopiperazine, homopiperidine, 1,3-dioxepane,4,7-dihydro-1,3-dioxepin and hexamethyleneoxide.

Examples of heteroaryl groups include pyridyl, pyrazinyl, pyrimidinyl(particularly 2- and 4-pyrimidinyl), pyridazinyl, thienyl, furyl,pyrrolyl (particularly 2-pyrrolyl), imidazolyl, thiazolyl, oxazolyl,pyrazolyl (particularly 3- and 5-pyrazolyl), isothiazolyl,1,2,3-triazolyl, 1,2,4-triazolyl, 1,3,4-triazolyl, tetrazolyl,1,2,3-thiadiazolyl, 1,2,3-oxadiazolyl, 1,3,4-thiadiazolyl and1,3,4-oxadiazolyl.

Examples of polycyclic heterocycles include indolyl (particularly 3-,4-, 5-, 6- and 7-indolyl), indolinyl, quinolyl, tetrahydroquinolyl,isoquinolyl (particularly 1- and 5-isoquinolyl),1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinolyl, cinnolinyl, quinoxalinyl (particularly 2-and 5-quinoxalinyl), quinazolinyl, phthalazinyl, 1,8-naphthyridinyl,1,4-benzodioxanyl, coumarin, dihydrocoumarin, 1,5-naphthyridinyl,benzofuryl (particularly 3-, 4-, 5-, 6- and 7-benzofuryl),2,3-dihydrobenzofuryl, 1,2-benzisoxazolyl, benzothienyl (particularly3-, 4-, 5-, 6-, and 7-benzothienyl), benzoxazolyl, benzothiazolyl(particularly 2-benzothiazolyl and 5-benzothiazolyl), purinyl,benzimidazolyl (particularly 2-benzimidazolyl), benztriazolyl,thioxanthinyl, carbazolyl, carbolinyl, acridinyl, pyrrolizidinyl, andquinolizidinyl.

The aforementioned listing of heterocyclyl and heteroaryl moieties isintended to be representative and not limiting.

As used herein, the term “substituted” means that an atom or group ofatoms has replaced hydrogen as the substituent attached to anothergroup.

For aryl, aryl-(C₁-C₃)alkyl and heterocyclyl groups, the term“substituted” as applied to the rings of these groups refers to anylevel of substitution, namely mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, orpenta-substitution, where such substitution is permitted. Thesubstituents are independently selected, and substitution may be at anychemically accessible position. In one embodiment, the substituents varyin number between one and four. In another embodiment, the substituentsvary in number between one and three. In yet another embodiment, thesubstituents vary in number between one and two. In yet anotherembodiment, the substituents are independently selected from the groupconsisting of C₁₋₆ alkyl, —OH, C₁₋₆ alkoxy, halo, amino, acetamido andnitro. In yet another embodiment, the substituents are independentlyselected from the group consisting of C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ alkoxy, halo,acetamido, and nitro. As used herein, where a substituent is an alkyl oralkoxy group, the carbon chain may be branched, straight or cyclic, withstraight being preferred.

“Instructional material,” as that term is used herein, includes apublication, a recording, a diagram, or any other medium of expressionthat may be used to communicate the usefulness of the compounds of theinvention. In some instances, the instructional material may be part ofa kit useful for effecting alleviating or treating the various diseasesor disorders recited herein. Optionally, or alternately, theinstructional material may describe one or more methods of alleviatingthe diseases or disorders in a cell or a tissue of a mammal. Theinstructional material of the kit may, for example, be affixed to acontainer that contains the compounds of the invention or be shippedtogether with a container that contains the compounds. Alternatively,the instructional material may be shipped separately from the containerwith the intention that the recipient uses the instructional materialand the compound cooperatively. For example, the instructional materialis for use of a kit; instructions for use of the compound; orinstructions for use of a formulation of the compound.

Compounds of the Invention

The compounds useful within the invention may be synthesized usingtechniques well-known in the art of organic synthesis.

In one aspect, the compound useful within the invention has the formula(I):

wherein in formula (I):

-   -   R¹, R² and R³ are independently selected from the group        consisting of H, cyano, hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo,        alkoxy, nitro, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl,        heterocyclyl, substituted heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl,        aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, carboxy,        alkylcarboxy, formyl, alkyl-carbonyl, aryl-carbonyl, and        heteroaryl-carbonyl;    -   R⁴ and R⁵ are independently selected from the group consisting        of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl,        heterocyclyl, substituted heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl,        aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, and substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl; and,    -   n is 2, 3, 4 or 5;        or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In one embodiment, R¹, R² and R³ are independently selected from thegroup consisting of H, cyano, hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo, alkoxy,nitro, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl, heterocyclyl,substituted heterocyclyl, carboxy, alkylcarboxy, formyl, alkyl-carbonyl,aryl-carbonyl, and heteroaryl-carbonyl. In another embodiment, R¹, R²and R³ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, cyano,hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo, alkoxy, nitro, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substitutedC₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl, carboxy, alkylcarboxy, formyl, andalkyl-carbonyl. In yet another embodiment, R¹, R² and R³ areindependently selected from the group consisting of H, cyano, hydroxyl,amino, acetamido, halo, alkoxy, nitro, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆alkyl, heteroalkyl, and carboxy. In yet another embodiment, R¹, R² andR³ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, cyano,hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo, alkoxy, nitro, C₁₋₆ alkyl, andcarboxy. In yet another embodiment, R¹, R² and R³ are independentlyselected from the group consisting of H, cyano, halo, alkoxy, nitro,C₁₋₆ alkyl, and carboxy. In yet another embodiment, R¹ and R² are H, andR³ is chloro. In yet another embodiment, R¹, R² and R³ are independentlyselected from the group consisting of H, fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo,methoxy, ethoxy, hydroxyl, methyl, ethyl or other C₁₋₆ alkyl.

In one embodiment, n is 2, 3 or 4. In another embodiment, n is 2 or 3.In yet another embodiment, n is 2.

In one embodiment, R⁴ and R⁵ are independently selected from the groupconsisting of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl,heterocyclyl, substituted heterocyclyl, aryl, and substituted aryl. Inanother embodiment, R⁴ and R⁵ are independently selected from the groupconsisting of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl,heterocyclyl, and substituted heterocyclyl. In yet another embodiment,R⁴ and R⁵ are independently selected from the group consisting of H,C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, and heteroalkyl. In yet anotherembodiment, R⁴ and R⁵ are independently selected from the groupconsisting of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl, and substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In yet anotherembodiment, R⁴ and R⁵ are methyl. In yet another embodiment, R⁵ is H,methyl, ethyl, prop-1-yl, prop-2-yl, hydroxymethyl, 1-hydroxy-ethyl,2-hydroxy-ethyl, 1-hydroxy-prop-1-yl, 2-hydroxy-prop-1-yl,3-hydroxy-prop-1-yl, 1-hydroxy-prop-2-yl or 2-hydroxy-prop-2-yl.

In one embodiment, the compound useful within the invention is selectedfrom the group consisting of:

mixtures thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In another aspect, the compound useful within the invention has theformula (IIa) or (IIb):

wherein in formula (IIa) or (IIb):

-   -   R¹ and R² are independently selected from the group consisting        of H, cyano, hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo, alkoxy, nitro,        C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl, heterocyclyl,        substituted heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl,        aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, carboxy,        alkylcarboxy, formyl, alkyl-carbonyl, aryl-carbonyl, and        heteroaryl-carbonyl;    -   R³ and R⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting        of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, and substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl;    -   R⁵ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl,        substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl, heterocyclyl, substituted        heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl, aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, and        substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl; and,    -   m is 1, 2, 3 or 4;        or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In one embodiment, R¹ and R² are independently selected from the groupconsisting of H, cyano, hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo, alkoxy, nitro,C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, carboxy, alkylcarboxy, formyl,alkyl-carbonyl, aryl-carbonyl, and heteroaryl-carbonyl. In anotherembodiment, R¹ and R² are independently selected from the groupconsisting of H, cyano, hydroxyl, halo, and alkoxy, C₁₋₆ alkyl, andsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkyl.

In one embodiment, R³ and R⁴ are independently selected from the groupconsisting of H, and C₁₋₆ alkyl.

In one embodiment, R⁵ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl.

In one embodiment, m is 1, 2 or 3.

In one embodiment, the compound useful within the invention is selectedfrom the group consisting of

mixtures thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In yet another aspect, the compound useful within the invention isselected from the group consisting of:

mixtures thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

Methods of the Invention

In one aspect, the invention includes a method of treating, amelioratingor preventing levodopa-induced dyskinesia in a patient suffering fromParkinson's Disease. The method comprises administering to the patient apharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutically effective amountof at least one compound selected from the group consisting of:

a compound of formula (I):

wherein in formula (I):

-   -   R¹, R² and R³ are independently selected from the group        consisting of H, cyano, hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo,        alkoxy, nitro, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl,        heterocyclyl, substituted heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl,        aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, carboxy,        alkylcarboxy, formyl, alkyl-carbonyl, aryl-carbonyl, and        heteroaryl-carbonyl;    -   R⁴ and R⁵ are independently selected from the group consisting        of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl,        heterocyclyl, substituted heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl,        aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, and substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl; and,    -   n is 2, 3, 4 or 5;        a compound of formula (IIa) or (IIb):

wherein in formula (IIa) or (IIb):

-   -   R¹ and R² are independently selected from the group consisting        of H, cyano, hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo, alkoxy, nitro,        C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl, heterocyclyl,        substituted heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl,        aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, carboxy,        alkylcarboxy, formyl, alkyl-carbonyl, aryl-carbonyl, and        heteroaryl-carbonyl;    -   R³ and R⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting        of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, and substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl;    -   R⁵ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl,        substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl, heterocyclyl, substituted        heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl, aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, and        substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl; and,    -   m is 1, 2, 3 or 4;        2,7-diamino-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-oxo-3,4,5,6-tetrahydropyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine-6-carbonitrile;        (Z)-2-(1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-yl)-N′-hydroxy-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)propanimidamide;

mixtures thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In one embodiment, R¹, R² and R³ are independently selected from thegroup consisting of H, cyano, hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo, alkoxy,nitro, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl, heterocyclyl,substituted heterocyclyl, carboxy, alkylcarboxy, formyl, alkyl-carbonyl,aryl-carbonyl, and heteroaryl-carbonyl. In another embodiment, R¹, R²and R³ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, cyano,hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo, alkoxy, nitro, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substitutedC₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl, carboxy, alkylcarboxy, formyl, andalkyl-carbonyl. In yet another embodiment, R¹, R² and R³ areindependently selected from the group consisting of H, cyano, hydroxyl,amino, acetamido, halo, alkoxy, nitro, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆alkyl, heteroalkyl, and carboxy. In yet another embodiment, R¹, R² andR³ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, cyano,hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo, alkoxy, nitro, C₁₋₆ alkyl, andcarboxy. In yet another embodiment, R¹, R² and R³ are independentlyselected from the group consisting of H, cyano, halo, alkoxy, nitro,C₁₋₆ alkyl, and carboxy. In yet another embodiment, R¹ and R² are H, andR³ is chloro. In yet another embodiment, R¹, R² and R³ are independentlyselected from the group consisting of H, fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo,methoxy, and ethoxy.

In one embodiment, R¹ and R² are independently selected from the groupconsisting of H, cyano, hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo, alkoxy, nitro,C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, carboxy, alkylcarboxy, formyl,alkyl-carbonyl, aryl-carbonyl, and heteroaryl-carbonyl. In anotherembodiment, R¹ and R² are independently selected from the groupconsisting of H, cyano, hydroxyl, halo, and alkoxy, C₁₋₆ alkyl, andsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkyl.

In one embodiment, n is 2, 3 or 4. In another embodiment, n is 2 or 3.In yet another embodiment, n is 2.

In one embodiment, R⁴ and R⁵ are independently selected from the groupconsisting of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl,heterocyclyl, substituted heterocyclyl, aryl, and substituted aryl. Inanother embodiment, R⁴ and R⁵ are independently selected from the groupconsisting of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl,heterocyclyl, and substituted heterocyclyl. In yet another embodiment,R⁴ and R⁵ are independently selected from the group consisting of H,C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, and heteroalkyl. In yet anotherembodiment, R⁴ and R⁵ are independently selected from the groupconsisting of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl, and substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In yet anotherembodiment, R⁴ and R⁵ are methyl. In yet another embodiment, R⁵ is H,methyl, ethyl, prop-1-yl, prop-2-yl, hydroxymethyl, 1-hydroxy-ethyl,2-hydroxy-ethyl, 1-hydroxy-prop-1-yl, 2-hydroxy-prop-1-yl,3-hydroxy-prop-1-yl, 1-hydroxy-prop-2-yl or 2-hydroxy-prop-2-yl.

In one embodiment, R³ and R⁴ are independently selected from the groupconsisting of H, and C₁₋₆ alkyl.

In one embodiment, R⁵ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl.

In one embodiment, m is 1, 2 or 3.

In one embodiment, the compound useful within the invention is selectedfrom the group consisting of: 2-amino-4-(2-chlorophenyl)butan-1-ol;2-(3-aminohexyl)phenol; 4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amine;4-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-butane;4-(2-fluorophenyl)butan-2-amine; 4-(2-bromophenyl)butan-2-amine;4-(2-iodophenyl)butan-2-amine; 4-(2-methoxyphenyl)butan-2-amine;2-(3-aminobutyl)phenol; 3-(3,4-diethoxyphenyl)propan-1-amine;4-(4-chlorophenyl)butan-2-amine; 4-(4-methoxyphenyl)butan-2-amine;2-(5-chloro-1-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)ethanamine;1-(5-fluoro-1-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)propan-2-amine;1-(5-methoxy-1-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)propan-2-amine;2,7-diamino-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-oxo-3,4,5,6-tetrahydropyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine-6-carbonitrile;(Z)-2-(1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-yl)-N′-hydroxy-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)propanimidamide;

mixtures thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In one embodiment, the composition further comprises a drug selectedfrom the group consisting of levodopa, clozapine, bromocriptine,pergolide, pramipexole, ropinirole, piribedil, cabergoline, apomorphine,and lisuride, a salt thereof and mixtures thereof. In anotherembodiment, the pharmaceutical composition is co-administered to thepatient with a second pharmaceutical composition comprising levodopa. Inyet another embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition is administeredto the patient a given period of time before a second pharmaceuticalcomposition comprising levodopa is administered to the patient. In yetanother embodiment, the given period of time varies from about 2 minutesto about 24 hours. In yet another embodiment, the patient is human.

In another aspect, the invention includes a method of treating,ameliorating or preventing Parkinson's Disease in a patient. The methodcomprises administering to the patient a pharmaceutical compositioncomprising a therapeutically effective amount of at least one compoundselected from the group consisting of:

a compound of formula (I):

wherein in formula (I):

-   -   R¹, R² and R³ are independently selected from the group        consisting of H, cyano, hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo,        alkoxy, nitro, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl,        heterocyclyl, substituted heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl,        aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, carboxy,        alkylcarboxy, formyl, alkyl-carbonyl, aryl-carbonyl, and        heteroaryl-carbonyl;    -   R⁴ and R⁵ are independently selected from the group consisting        of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl,        heterocyclyl, substituted heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl,        aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, and substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl; and,    -   n is 2, 3, 4 or 5;        a compound of formula (IIa) or (IIb):

wherein in formula (IIa) or (IIb):

-   -   R¹ and R² are independently selected from the group consisting        of H, cyano, hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo, alkoxy, nitro,        C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl, heterocyclyl,        substituted heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl,        aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, carboxy,        alkylcarboxy, formyl, alkyl-carbonyl, aryl-carbonyl, and        heteroaryl-carbonyl;    -   R³ and R⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting        of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, and substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl;    -   R⁵ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl,        substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl, heterocyclyl, substituted        heterocyclyl, aryl, substituted aryl, aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl, and        substituted aryl-(C₁₋₃)alkyl; and,    -   m is 1, 2, 3 or 4;        2,7-diamino-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-oxo-3,4,5,6-tetrahydropyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine-6-carbonitrile;        (Z)-2-(1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-yl)-N′-hydroxy-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)propanimidamide;        mixtures thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In one embodiment, R¹, R² and R³ are independently selected from thegroup consisting of H, cyano, hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo, alkoxy,nitro, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl, heterocyclyl,substituted heterocyclyl, carboxy, alkylcarboxy, formyl, alkyl-carbonyl,aryl-carbonyl, and heteroaryl-carbonyl. In another embodiment, R¹, R²and R³ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, cyano,hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo, alkoxy, nitro, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substitutedC₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl, carboxy, alkylcarboxy, formyl, andalkyl-carbonyl. In yet another embodiment, R¹, R² and R³ areindependently selected from the group consisting of H, cyano, hydroxyl,amino, acetamido, halo, alkoxy, nitro, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆alkyl, heteroalkyl, and carboxy. In yet another embodiment, R¹, R² andR³ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, cyano,hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo, alkoxy, nitro, C₁₋₆ alkyl, andcarboxy. In yet another embodiment, R¹, R² and R³ are independentlyselected from the group consisting of H, cyano, halo, alkoxy, nitro,C₁₋₆ alkyl, and carboxy. In yet another embodiment, R¹ and R² are H, andR³ is chloro. In yet another embodiment, R¹, R² and R³ are independentlyselected from the group consisting of H, fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo,methoxy, and ethoxy.

In one embodiment, R¹ and R² are independently selected from the groupconsisting of H, cyano, hydroxyl, amino, acetamido, halo, alkoxy, nitro,C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, carboxy, alkylcarboxy, formyl,alkyl-carbonyl, aryl-carbonyl, and heteroaryl-carbonyl. In anotherembodiment, R¹ and R² are independently selected from the groupconsisting of H, cyano, hydroxyl, halo, and alkoxy, C₁₋₆ alkyl, andsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkyl.

In one embodiment, n is 2, 3 or 4. In another embodiment, n is 2 or 3.In yet another embodiment, n is 2.

In one embodiment, R⁴ and R⁵ are independently selected from the groupconsisting of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl,heterocyclyl, substituted heterocyclyl, aryl, and substituted aryl. Inanother embodiment, R⁴ and R⁵ are independently selected from the groupconsisting of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, heteroalkyl,heterocyclyl, and substituted heterocyclyl. In yet another embodiment,R⁴ and R⁵ are independently selected from the group consisting of H,C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, and heteroalkyl. In yet anotherembodiment, R⁴ and R⁵ are independently selected from the groupconsisting of H, C₁₋₆ alkyl, and substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In yet anotherembodiment, R⁴ and R⁵ are methyl. In yet another embodiment, R⁵ is H,methyl, ethyl, prop-1-yl, prop-2-yl, hydroxymethyl, 1-hydroxy-ethyl,2-hydroxy-ethyl, 1-hydroxy-prop-1-yl, 2-hydroxy-prop-1-yl,3-hydroxy-prop-1-yl, 1-hydroxy-prop-2-yl or 2-hydroxy-prop-2-yl.

In one embodiment, R³ and R⁴ are independently selected from the groupconsisting of H, and C₁₋₆ alkyl.

In one embodiment, R⁵ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl.

In one embodiment, m is 1, 2 or 3.

In one embodiment, the compound useful within the invention is selectedfrom the group consisting of: 2-amino-4-(2-chlorophenyl)butan-1-ol;2-(3-aminohexyl)phenol; 4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amine;4-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-butane;4-(2-fluorophenyl)butan-2-amine; 4-(2-bromophenyl)butan-2-amine;4-(2-iodophenyl)butan-2-amine; 4-(2-methoxyphenyl)butan-2-amine;2-(3-aminobutyl)phenol; 3-(3,4-diethoxyphenyl)propan-1-amine;4-(4-chlorophenyl)butan-2-amine; 4-(4-methoxyphenyl)butan-2-amine;2-(5-chloro-1-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)ethanamine;1-(5-fluoro-1-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)propan-2-amine;1-(5-methoxy-1-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)propan-2-amine;2,7-diamino-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-oxo-3,4,5,6-tetrahydropyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine-6-carbonitrile;(Z)-2-(1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-yl)-N′-hydroxy-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)propanimidamide;mixtures thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In one embodiment, the composition further comprises a drug selectedfrom the group consisting of levodopa, clozapine, bromocriptine,pergolide, pramipexole, ropinirole, piribedil, cabergoline, apomorphine,and lisuride, a salt thereof and mixtures thereof. In anotherembodiment, the patient is further administered a composition comprisinga drug selected from the group consisting of levodopa, clozapine,bromocriptine, pergolide, pramipexole, ropinirole, piribedil,cabergoline, apomorphine, and lisuride, a salt thereof and mixturesthereof.

Molecular Basis of LID in Patients Suffering from Parkinson's Disease

The molecular mechanisms underlying the development of LID in patientssuffering from Parkinson's Disease are still not well understood.Studies have shown that expression of a number of genes is altered indyskinetic animals. In particular, in both rodents and primates, studieshave reported a specific increase in the D₃ dopamine receptor expressionin the basal ganglia of dyskinetic animals. The functional consequenceof the increased D₃ receptor expression, in areas that normally expressthe D₂ dopamine receptor, is not known.

According to the concept of functional selectivity, ligands maydifferentially activate signaling pathways coupled to a single GPCR(Kenakin, 2003, Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 24(7):346-354; Urban et al.,2007, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 320(1):1-13). Functional selectivity hasbeen previously reported for D₂ receptors (Gay et al., 2004, Mol.Pharmacol. 66(1):97-105). Sarizotan, a ligand with affinity at D₂-likedopamine receptors, exhibits functional selectivity at D_(2L) andD_(4.2) dopamine receptors (Kuzhikandathil & Bartoszyk, 2006,Neuropharmacology 51:873-884). Sarizotan is a partial agonist for theD_(2L)- and D_(4.2)-GIRK channel signaling pathway but a full agonist atthe D_(2L)- and D_(4.2)-adenylyl cyclase pathway (Kuzhikandathil &Bartoszyk, 2006, Neuropharmacology 51:873-884). Subsequent studiesrevealed that sarizotan induces tolerance and slow response termination(SRT) properties on D_(2S) dopamine receptors. This suggests that, inaddition to differentially activating signaling pathways, certainagonists could modulate intrinsic receptor properties such as thetolerance and slow response termination properties.

The D₃ dopamine receptor exhibits tolerance and slow responsetermination (SRT) properties that distinguish it from the D₂ dopaminereceptors (FIGS. 1A-1D). The tolerance property of D₃ receptor describesthe progressive decrease in receptor signaling function upon repeatedstimulation by classical agonists, including dopamine. The SRT propertydescribes the prolongation of time taken to terminate the signalingfunction of the D₃ receptor, after removal of the agonist.

D₃ receptor tolerance and SRT has been observed in cultured substantianigra neurons, and with human and mouse D₃ receptors heterologouslyexpressed in Xenopus oocytes, CHO-K1 cells and AtT-20 cells. Toleranceand SRT properties are elicited by the native agonist dopamine and byvarious synthetic agonists tested to date. The tolerance and SRTproperties of D₃ receptors are elicited over a broad range of agonistconcentrations, being observed at 10, 30, 100 and 1000 nM. Theproperties are manifest in D₃-GIRK, D₃-ACV and D₃-MAP kinase signalingpathways.

Differences in the properties of D₂ and D₃ receptors give rise to adifferential modulation of neuronal firing (FIGS. 1A-1D). These resultssuggest a model in which aberrant expression of D₃ receptor toleranceand SRT properties could result in aberrant modulation of neuronalfiring in the basal ganglia of the dyskinetic animals and contribute tothe development of LID in Parkinson's Disease. According to this model,if D₃ receptor tolerance and SRT properties could be abolished, themodulation of neuronal firing by the over-expressed D₃ receptor in thebasal ganglia of dyskinetic animals would be similar to the nativelyexpressed D₂ receptors and potentially prevent the expression ofdyskinesia.

Initial Studies on Dopamine D3 Agonists

To identify agonists that could abolish the D₃ dopamine receptortolerance and SRT, synthetic D₃ receptor-preferring agonists werefunctionally screened. The functional activity of the compounds weretested by stimulating human D₂, D₃ and D₄ dopamine receptorsindividually expressed in the AtT-20 cell line. These dopamine receptorscouple to and activate the G-protein coupled inward rectifier potassium(GIRK) channels and also inhibit the endogenous adenylyl cyclase inAtT-20 cells (Kuzhikandathil et al., 2004, Mol. Cell. Neurosci.26:144-155; Westrich & Kuzhikandathil, 2007, Biochim. Biophys. Acta-Mol.Cell Res. 1773:1747-1758).

The activation of the GIRK channels was measured electrophysiologicallyusing whole cell voltage clamp recording (Kuzhikandathil et al., 2004,Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 26:144-155). The GIRK channel responses elicitedwith new ligands were compared to quinpirole, a classical full agonistof D₂, D₃ and D₄ dopamine receptors. The adenylyl cyclase inhibition wasdetermined using a commercially available ELISA assay (Westrich &Kuzhikandathil, 2007, Biochim. Biophys. Acta-Mol. Cell Res.1773:1747-1758).

An initial functional screen identifiedcis-8-hydroxy-3-(n-propyl)-1,2,3a,4,5,9b-hexahydro-1H-benz[e]indolehydrobromide (PBZI). This compound has been reported as a D₃ dopaminereceptor agonist; nevertheless, the present studies indicate that,unlike traditional D₃ receptor agonists, PBZI does not elicit toleranceand SRT properties (FIGS. 2A-2C).

Hybrid Structure Based (HSB) Protocol

The Hybrid Structure Based (HSB) protocol (Koratgere & Welsh, 2006, J.Comp. Aided Mol. Des. 20:789-802; FIG. 3) was used to identifyadditional compounds belonging to the novel class of D₃ receptoragonists that do not elicit tolerance and SRT properties. The HSBprotocol consists of 5 sub-phases (FIG. 3). Phase I corresponds tobuilding a comprehensive electronic database of vendor available smallmolecules. Phase II corresponds to developing and screening compoundsusing a hybrid pharmacophore starting from the 3D structural snapshotsfrom the MD simulation. Phase III corresponds to subjecting compoundsthat pass the hybrid pharmacophore screening to clustering, filtering,chemical space analysis and classification models to develop theenriched database of small molecules. Phase IV corresponds to dockingmolecules from the enriched database to the DRD3 receptor, with scoresderived from consensus scoring schemes. Phase V corresponds to testingbest ranking compounds for their activity against all the dopaminereceptors.

Develop Comprehensive Electronic Database of Small Molecules:

A subset of the Zinc database (Irwin & Soichet, 2005, J. Chem. Inf.Models 45:177-82) consisting of compounds from commercial vendors, alongwith other compounds including natural products, ligands from PDB andFDA approved drugs, form the entire database of nearly 3 millioncompounds. All compounds were acquired as sdf formatted files, convertedinto Mol2 format and energy minimized using Tripos force field. Further,all molecules in the database were filtered for redundancy and renamedaccording to their corresponding vendor listing.

Develop a Combined Ligand-Protein Pharmacophore:

Generating the combined pharmacophore (also called the hybridpharmacophore) is an important step of the method. Hence, customizingthe pharmacophore to capture the essential features of interactionsbetween PBZI and D₃ receptor is important.

Such information was obtained from the 3D structural complex of PBZI-D₃receptor complex. The homology model of D₃ receptor was built using thecrystal structure of beta2 adrenergic receptor (B2AR) with a partialinverse agonist bound to it (2RH1) (Cherezov et al., 2007, Science318(5854):1258-65). The transmembrane (TM) regions and the loop regionsbore significant homology to the corresponding residues from the betaadrenergic crystal structure. The third intracellular loop in the B2ARwas longer than the corresponding loop in the D₃ receptor and hence alarge deletion shown in the alignment (FIG. 4) was not modeled. However,the rest of the third intracellular loop, shown to be very significantfor the SRT and receptor tolerance, was modeled using the alignedcoordinates from the B2AR structure. Further the entire structure wasrefined using energy minimization and molecular dynamics simulation witha 2 ns long production run. All simulations were performed using NAMD(Kale et al., 1999, J. Comput. Physics 151(1):283-312) with CHARMM forcefield (Brooks et al., 1983, J. Comput. Chem. 4:187-217).

The refined structure was used for further docking experiments.Dopamine, PD128907 and PBZI were docked using GOLD program (ver4.0)(Jones et al., 1997, J. Mol. Biol. 267:727-48). The docked complexeswere energy minimized using NAMD program. Key interactions between PBZIand the D₃ receptor were used to build the hybrid pharmacophore (FIG.5). Various pharmacophore models were generated involving a combinationof the four pharmacophore elements that are key to designing D₃ receptoragonists, such as the salt bridge with the aspartic acid in TM3 andhydrophobic interactions with the aromatic amino acid cluster from TM5and TM6. Further, a small interchange of residues between TM2 and TM3was shown to be instrumental in designing highly selective D₄ agonistsand antagonist (Kortagere et al., 2004, Mol. Pharmacol. 66:1491-99).These biochemical and functional evidence were integrated into thedesign of the hybrid pharmacophore, which was then used to screen smallmolecule databases (which were described above).

A preliminary screening using the hydrophobic core and the two hydrogenbond acceptor-donor pair resulted in 85 compounds that satisfy thepharmacophore and dock to the D₃ receptor with high scores. Onerepresentative compound 4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amine (FIGS. 6A-6D)was used for in vitro and in vivo functional characterization.4-(2-Chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amine docked very similar to the parent PBZIcompound in the D₃ receptor, making the required salt bridge interactionwith Asp110 and hydrophobic aromatic interactions with aromatic residuessuch as Phe345 and His349 (FIGS. 6A-6D).

Filtering, Chemical Space Analysis and Clustering Modules:

Filtering Schemes:

Compounds that result from pharmacophore based screening are clusteredbased on their physicochemical properties, such as shape, log P, volume,TPSA and molecular weight, derived from CHEMAXON program. Lipinski'srule of five is applied as a first filter, and a regression basedblood-brain-barrier (BBB) penetration model that may filter outcompounds for BBB penetration is the second level of filter (Kortagereet al., 2008, Pharm. Res. 8:1836-45). The BBB regression model is ageneralized model, described as:

log BB(pred)=0.3408*log P−0.0192*TPSA+0.2503*a_nN+0.1467*a_nO+0.1069*logs−0.0011*mass−0.0001*volume 0.0602*# rot. bonds.

where: a_nN is number for nitrogen atoms, a_nO is number of oxygenatoms, TPSA is topological polar surface area, log S is solubility andlog P is a water/octanol partition coefficient and measure ofhydrophobicity, and # rot. bonds is the number of rotatable bonds.

Chemical Space Analysis and Clustering Techniques:

Chemical space analysis of the compounds is performed to analyze if thecompounds belong to one or more chemical classes. Outliers that arechemically divergent against the query structure are removed; however abroad cutoff is used to allow for scaffold hoping. Clustering and QSARbased classification of the compounds is performed using support vectormachine (SVM) techniques. Methods and application of the SVM basedmodels to classify compounds that may penetrate BBB and to classify PXRactivators have been done with good accuracy.

Hence adopting this method to classify the compounds based on the targetand to generate an enrichment of the database is useful to avoidscreening undesired molecules. The molecules in the database developedherein do not contain stereoisomers. During the enrichment process,compounds that are chemically identical are removed for redundancy byretaining only a single copy of the molecule.

Develop Customized Scoring Schemes:

The GOLD program is used for preliminary docking. The active site forestablished ligands is defined as all residues that may encompass theligand within an 8 Å radius sphere. The “library screening mode” optionin GOLD docking program is used for fast docking. Further, given thenon-deterministic nature of genetic algorithms, 50 independent dockingruns are performed for each ligand. The full set of docked structures isenergy minimized using the molecular modeling package SYBYL (TriposInc., St Louis, Mo., USA). The docked receptor-ligand complexes isscored using a customizable knowledge based scoring function based onthe nature of interaction of every ligand atom with the protein atom.Details of the method and the normalization scheme have been discussedin Kortagere et al. (Pharm. Res. 2009, 4:1001-11) Further, a consensusscoring scheme that involves the Goldscore, Chemscore, contact score andshape weighted scoring scheme is used to rank the compounds. A recentapplication on classifying PXR compounds using the consensus scheme hasbeen detailed in Kortagere et al. Similar schemes are implemented toderive the best ranking compounds that bind to D₃ receptor. The dockingprogram used provides some level receptor flexibility at the bindingsite. However, a complete induced fit model cannot be achieved usingthis level of screening as it is computationally expensive and may notwell be required. As an alternative, another docking program calledGlide, that has been well demonstrated to use induce fit concept on thefinal 25 best docked molecules instead of at the screening level, may beused. This ensures that (a) the best docked complexes are redocked andrescored; and (b) since no one docking or scoring program mayefficiently capture the intricacies of the docking process, by usingmore than one docking program, it is ensured that the best rankedmolecules that are short listed for experimental validation are screenedefficiently.

Furthermore, to assess the selectivity of these best ranking compoundsto the dopamine D₃ receptor, they are docked and scored against theother four dopamine receptors. Only those compounds that score the bestagainst the dopamine D₃ receptor are used as lead molecules in theiterative HSB method. Preliminary results have validated the HSBprotocol, as a novel compound, 4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amine (FIGS.7A-7B), was identified as a D₃ receptor agonist that does NOT elicit thetolerance and SRT properties.

Evaluation of the Function, Selectivity and Cytotoxicity Profile ofNovel D₃ Receptor Agonists in Cell-Based Assays

The lead compounds identified above are evaluated in cell based assaysto determine their ability to activate D₃ receptors without inducingtolerance and SRT properties. The selectivity at various dopaminereceptor subtypes are assessed by generating functional dose-responsecurves from AtT-20 neuroendocrine cell lines stably expressing thevarious dopamine receptor subtypes. The cytotoxicity is assessed bymeasuring the effect of lead compounds on proliferation and cell deathof three different cell lines representing an endocrine, neuronal andhepatic cell type. Each criterion that determines if a lead compoundprogresses through the preclinical development protocol is shown in FIG.8.

Agonism of D₃ Dopamine Receptor:

To determine whether a compound is an agonist of the D₃ dopaminereceptor the AtT-20 neuroendocrine cell line that stably expresses thehuman D₃ receptors is used. In the initial screen, the ability of 300 nMlead compound to activate G-protein coupled inward rectifier potassium(GIRK) channels (FIGS. 1A-1D) is measured using whole cell voltage clamprecording. The protocol has been previously used for performing wholecell voltage clamp and measuring agonist-induced GIRK response. Theacute ligand-induced GIRK currents are compared to that elicited byequivalent concentration of native agonist dopamine or full agonistquinpirole. The specificity of the response is determined by measuringGIRK response elicited by the lead compound in non-transfected AtT-20cells and also in the presence of D₂-like dopamine receptor antagonisteticlopride and D₃ receptor selective antagonist GR218231((+)-(2R)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-6-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl]methyl]-N,N-dipropyl-2-naphthalenamine).To be considered for further development, the lead compound shouldgenerate a GIRK response that is equal to or greater than that elicitedby equivalent concentration (300 nM) of dopamine or quinpirole.

Abolishment of the D₃ Receptor Tolerance and SRT:

To determine whether a compound abolishes the D₃ receptor tolerance andSRT, the D₃ receptor-activated GIRK response to two consecutivetreatments of the lead compound is measured. As illustrated by FIGS.9A-9C, the ratio of the second response to first response is close to 1for agonists that abolish tolerance but is approximately 0.4 foragonists that elicit tolerance (for e.g. dopamine and quinpirole). Inone embodiment, for further consideration, the lead compound should havea ratio of second to first GIRK response between 0.7 and 1.0.

In a second series of experiments, using the coupling to GIRK channelsas the assay, the ability of the lead compound to compete with 100 nM,300 nM and 1000 nM dopamine to block the development of tolerance andSRT at D₃ receptors is determined. As illustrated in FIGS. 10A-10B, PBZI(which reduces AIM scores in the LID model) was able to competeeffectively with dopamine in this assay.

Determination of the EC₅₀ of Lead Compound at Various D₂-Like DopamineReceptors:

AtT-20 neuroendocrine cell lines stably expressing the human isoforms ofD_(2S), D_(2L), D₃, D_(4.2) and D_(4.4) dopamine receptors areavailable. In addition, AtT-20 cells stably expressing D₁ dopaminereceptors and 5HT-1A serotonin receptors are also available.Furthermore, non-transfected AtT-20 cells express endogenoussomatostatin and muscarinic receptors.

As the initial step, membranes isolated from the cell lines stablyexpressing the various dopamine receptors are used to performcompetitive radioligand binding assays. This procedure yields the K_(i)of the lead compound for the various dopamine receptor subtypes. As thenext step, the various cell lines are used to obtain dose responsecurves in two functional assays.

In the first assay, whole cell voltage clamp recording is used tomeasure GIRK response to increasing concentrations of the lead compound(0.01 nM to 3,000 nM dose range). The EC₅₀ values for each receptorsubtype is determined by fitting the data points using the Hillequation.

In the second functional assay, the ability of D₂-like dopaminereceptors to inhibit adenylyl cyclase activity is assessed. The abilityof the lead compound to dose-dependently decrease forskolin-induced cAMPlevels is measured. The IC₅₀ values for each receptor subtype isdetermined by fitting the data points using the Hill equation.Previously, the EC₅₀ and IC₅₀ values for dopamine and quinpirole hasbeen determined in these cell lines in both functional assays. In oneembodiment, to be advanced, the lead compound has to have an EC₅₀ orIC₅₀ value that is less than or equal to that of dopamine or quinpirolein either one of these assays. FIGS. 11A-11B illustrates examples ofdose response curves for PBZI and 4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amine at D₃dopamine receptor.

Assessment of Cytotoxicity of the Lead Compound:

To determine the cytotoxicity of the lead compound, the cellproliferation labeling reagent WST-1(2-(4-iodophenyl)-3-(4-nitrophenyl)-5-(2,4-disulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium,monosodium salt; Roche Applied Science) is used. The effect of the leadcompound on the proliferation of three different cell lines (AtT-20cells as a model for neuroendocrine cells, CAD cells as a model forcatecholaminergic neuronal cells and HepG2 as a model for hepatic cells)is determined. Together, the three cell lines provide a preliminaryscreen for cytotoxicity.

The cells are treated with a wide concentration range of the leadcompound (0.01 nM to 100 μM) for 24 hours and then incubated with WST-1for an additional 4 hours and the absorbance values are determined usinga spectrophotometer. The criterion for being selected in thecytotoxicity screen is that the lead compound should exhibit an EC₅₀greater than 10 μM. As the lead compound development advances, thecompound is also submitted to in vivo ADMET, toxicity andpharmacokinetic analysis.

Assessment of the Effect of Novel D₃ Receptor Agonists in LocomotorBehavior Assays

The compounds useful within the invention are evaluated for theirability to reduce AIMs scores in the rat intrastriatal 6-OHDA lesionmodel of LID.

Assessment of the Effect of the Lead Compound on Locomotor Activity inBalb/c Mice:

Tolerance- and non-tolerance inducing agonists that target dopamine D₃receptors differentially alter locomotor activity. Specifically,tolerance-inducing compounds (e.g., PD128907, also known as(4aR,10bR)-3,4a,4,10b-tetrahydro-4-propyl-2H,5H-[1]benzopyrano-[4,3-b]-1,4-oxazin-9-olhydrochloride; quinpirole; and PBZI) induce biphasic locomotor effects,characterized by an initial inhibition and a subsequent stimulation oflocomotion.

The preliminary results (Example 5) are consistent with studies thathave demonstrated that administration of classical D₂/D₃ receptoragonists such as quinpirole, PD128907 or7-hydroxy-N,N-dipropyl-2-aminotetralin (7OH-DPAT) elicited a biphasiclocomotor response characterized by an initial inhibition and asubsequent stimulation of locomotion. The studies reported hereinindicate that administration of D₃ receptor agonists such as PBZI thatabolish tolerance and SRT to Balb/c mice only elicit hypoactivity. Incontrast, PD128907 elicited tolerance and SRT at D₃ dopamine receptorsand induces both hypoactivity and hyperactivity (FIGS. 12A-12B). SincePBZI significantly reduced the AIM score in the rat LID model (FIGS.13A-13B), the agonist-induced locomotor activity assay may be used as apredictor of compounds that successfully reduce dyskinesia in the LIDmodel.

In one embodiment, a goal of the study is to test this hypothesis as itmay lead to development of a simple behavioral assay for screening leadcompounds that might be beneficial for treating LID. Therefore, threedifferent doses of the lead compound are administered and their effectson locomotor activity are determined. The dosage is determined based onthe functional EC₅₀ values and binding affinity of the lead compoundfrom the cell-based assays described above. The compound is administeredto Balb/c mice and locomotor activity is monitored using the TruScanAutomated Behavioral Monitoring system (Coulborn Instruments). In anon-limiting aspect, the lead compound that abolishes D₃ receptortolerance and SRT only elicits hypoactivity in the locomotor assay,consistent with the PBZI results (FIGS. 12A-12B).

Assessment of the Effect of the Lead Compound in the Rat Intrastriatal6-OHDA Lesion Model:

If the tolerance and SRT properties of the D₃ receptor contributes tothe expression of LID in the intrastriatal 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)lesioned rats, administration of non-tolerance-inducing D₃ receptoragonists, such as PBZI, prior to levodopa administration should reduceor abolish the symptoms associated with dyskinesia.

The unilateral intrastriatal 6-OHDA lesioned rat model of Parkinson'sDisease has been extensively characterized and widely used to testneuroprotective and transplantation strategies to treat Parkinson'sDisease. The partial and slowly progressing degeneration of the nigraldopamine neurons and the concomitant development of motor deficits inthis rat Parkinson's Disease model appear to mimic the progressivedeterioration observed in patients suffering from Parkinson's Disease.Of particular interest is the development of LID in this animal model,which are similar to the abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs) seenclinically.

The intrastriatal 6-OHDA rat Parkinson's Disease model described byWinkler et al., 2002 is herein used. In particular, rats in whichunilateral intrastriatal lesion is induced by injection of 6-OHDA (7 μg)at three different sites in the ventrolateral striatum are used. Thecoordinates for the three injection sites are, in mm: injection site 1:AP: +1.0; ML: −3.0; DV: −5.0; injection site 2: AP: −0.1; ML: −3.7; DV:−5.0; injection site 3: AP: −1.2; ML: −4.5; DV: −5.0. Anterior-posterior(AP) and mediolateral (ML) coordinates are from bregma. Thedorso-ventral (DV) coordinates are from dura. The toothbar location is0.

The intrastriatal 6-OHDA lesioned and sham lesioned rats are obtainedfrom the Custom Surgical Services division of Charles RiverLaboratories, Wilmington, Mass., USA. The commercial vendor tests thelesioned animals for amphetamine-induced rotation one week post lesionprior to shipping. A previous study has demonstrated that animalslesioned by the three-site injection exhibit a significant increase inamphetamine-induced rotation after one week. The lesioned animalsexhibit bradykinesia/akinesia in the limb contralateral to the lesion.In the experiments, the ability of levodopa to improvebradykinesia/akinesia in the contralateral paw is first determined byperforming the forelimb stepping test. The stepping test, subsequently,also provides a way to test if the lead compound interferes with theability of levodopa to improve bradykinesia/akinesia. The effect oflesion on forelimb bradykinesia/akinesia is measured three weekspost-lesion using the stepping test. Once a significant deficit instepping ability is established in the paw contralateral to the lesion,increasing doses of levodopa (2, 4 and 6 mg/kg) are administered alongwith 15 mg/kg benserazide (peripheral DOPA-decarboxylase inhibitor) andstepping ability assessed using the Stepping test, 60 minutes postinjection. The dose of levodopa that is selected for the chronicadministration phase is the dose that significantly improves the scorein the stepping test (FIG. 14).

Seven and half weeks after the lesion, chronic levodopa treatment (6mg/kg, single dose per day given with 15 mg/kg benserazide) isinitiated. Stepping test and AIMs scores are determined on day 1, 8, 10,17 and 24 after the initiation of chronic levodopa treatment. Uponchronic levodopa administration, the lesioned animals exhibit abnormalinvoluntary movements (AIMs) that include locomotor, axial, limb, andorolingual components. AIMs are scored using a rating scale based onfrequency and severity of the dyskinetic symptoms. It should be notedthat the rank order of the various AIMs components in terms of frequencyand severity in the rat model is: limb>orolingual=axial>>locomotor. Thislesion model has been used to test the effect of PBZI on LID (Example3).

To determine AIMs score, the rats are placed in a transparent glasscylinder and recorded using a digital video recorder. An experimentallyblinded scorer observe for one minute at every 20^(th) minute, from 20minutes before to 180 minutes after the injection of levodopa.Levodopa-induced AIMs score is determined according to the ratdyskinesia scale. 6-OHDA lesioned animals develop LID approximately 10days after initiation of the chronic levodopa treatment. The ability ofPBZI to reduce the levodopa-induced AIMs score was determined byadministering PBZI 10 minutes prior to levodopa administration on day10, 17 and 24 after initiation of the chronic levodopa administration.The stepping test was also performed on these days to assess the effectof PBZI on the ability of levodopa to improve the stepping deficit inthe lesioned animals. Two doses of the lead compound are tested. Thedosage is determined by the affinity of the compound for the receptorand the results of the locomotor behavior assay described above.

The time course of the experiment is shown in FIG. 15. One week afterthe 3-site unilateral intrastriatal 6-OHDA injection, the rats aresubjected to the amphetamine-induced rotation test to identify lesionedanimals. Three weeks post lesion, the animals are subjected to thestepping test to determine the pre-levodopa stepping deficit. Five weekspost lesion, increasing doses (2 to 6 mg/kg) of levodopa areadministered once daily only on indicated days and stepping testperformed. Seven and half weeks post lesion, levodopa (6 mg/kg) isadministered once daily every day for 3.5 weeks. On day 1 and 8 afterinitiation of the chronic administration, stepping test and AIMs scoresare determined following levodopa injection. On days 10, 17 and 24stepping test and AIMs scores are determined following co-injection oflevodopa and compound. At the end of 11-weeks, the animals aredecapitated and brain tissue used for histological analysis: brainsections of animals are stained for tyrosine hydroxylase to assess lossof dopaminergic neurons in the lesioned hemisphere. Brain sections fromsome animals are assessed for D₂ and D₃ receptor binding and mRNAexpression.

Combination Therapies

The compounds of the present invention are intended to be useful in themethods of present invention in combination with one or more additionalcompounds useful for treating Parkinson's Disease. These additionalcompounds may comprise compounds of the present invention or compounds,e.g., commercially available compounds, known to treat, prevent, orreduce the symptoms of Parkinson's Disease.

In non-limiting examples, the compounds of the invention may be used incombination with one or more of the following drugs: levodopa,clozapine, bromocriptine, pergolide, pramipexole, ropinirole, piribedil,cabergoline, apomorphine, and lisuride, a salt thereof and mixturesthereof.

A synergistic effect may be calculated, for example, using suitablemethods such as, for example, the Sigmoid-E_(max) equation (Holford &Scheiner, 19981, Clin. Pharmacokinet. 6: 429-453), the equation of Loeweadditivity (Loewe & Muischnek, 1926, Arch. Exp. Pathol Pharmacol. 114:313-326) and the median-effect equation (Chou & Talalay, 1984, Adv.Enzyme Regul. 22: 27-55). Each equation referred to above may be appliedto experimental data to generate a corresponding graph to aid inassessing the effects of the drug combination. The corresponding graphsassociated with the equations referred to above are theconcentration-effect curve, isobologram curve and combination indexcurve, respectively.

Administration/Dosage/Formulations

The regimen of administration may affect what constitutes an effectiveamount. The therapeutic formulations may be administered to the patienteither prior to or after the onset of a LID. Further, several divideddosages, as well as staggered dosages may be administered daily orsequentially, or the dose may be continuously infused, or may be a bolusinjection. Further, the dosages of the therapeutic formulations may beproportionally increased or decreased as indicated by the exigencies ofthe therapeutic or prophylactic situation.

Administration of the compositions of the present invention to apatient, preferably a mammal, more preferably a human, may be carriedout using known procedures, at dosages and for periods of time effectiveto treat LID in the patient. An effective amount of the therapeuticcompound necessary to achieve a therapeutic effect may vary according tofactors such as the state of the disease or disorder in the patient; theage, sex, and weight of the patient; and the ability of the therapeuticcompound to treat LID in the patient. Dosage regimens may be adjusted toprovide the optimum therapeutic response. For example, several divideddoses may be administered daily or the dose may be proportionallyreduced as indicated by the exigencies of the therapeutic situation. Anon-limiting example of an effective dose range for a therapeuticcompound of the invention is from about 1 and 5,000 mg/kg of bodyweight/per day. One of ordinary skill in the art would be able to studythe relevant factors and make the determination regarding the effectiveamount of the therapeutic compound without undue experimentation.

Actual dosage levels of the active ingredients in the pharmaceuticalcompositions of this invention may be varied so as to obtain an amountof the active ingredient that is effective to achieve the desiredtherapeutic response for a particular patient, composition, and mode ofadministration, without being toxic to the patient.

In particular, the selected dosage level will depend upon a variety offactors including the activity of the particular compound employed, thetime of administration, the rate of excretion of the compound, theduration of the treatment, other drugs, compounds or materials used incombination with the compound, the age, sex, weight, condition, generalhealth and prior medical history of the patient being treated, and likefactors well, known in the medical arts.

A medical doctor, e.g., physician or veterinarian, having ordinary skillin the art may readily determine and prescribe the effective amount ofthe pharmaceutical composition required. For example, the physician orveterinarian could start doses of the compounds of the inventionemployed in the pharmaceutical composition at levels lower than thatrequired in order to achieve the desired therapeutic effect andgradually increase the dosage until the desired effect is achieved.

In particular embodiments, it is especially advantageous to formulatethe compound in dosage unit form for ease of administration anduniformity of dosage. Dosage unit form as used herein refers tophysically discrete units suited as unitary dosages for the patients tobe treated; each unit containing a predetermined quantity of therapeuticcompound calculated to produce the desired therapeutic effect inassociation with the required pharmaceutical vehicle. The dosage unitforms of the invention are dictated by and directly dependent on (a) theunique characteristics of the therapeutic compound and the particulartherapeutic effect to be achieved, and (b) the limitations inherent inthe art of compounding/formulating such a therapeutic compound for thetreatment of LID in a patient.

In one embodiment, the compositions of the invention are formulatedusing one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients or carriers. Inone embodiment, the pharmaceutical compositions of the inventioncomprise a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of theinvention and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

The carrier may be a solvent or dispersion medium containing, forexample, water, ethanol, polyol (for example, glycerol, propyleneglycol, and liquid polyethylene glycol, and the like), suitable mixturesthereof, and vegetable oils. The proper fluidity may be maintained, forexample, by the use of a coating such as lecithin, by the maintenance ofthe required particle size in the case of dispersion and by the use ofsurfactants. Prevention of the action of microorganisms may be achievedby various antibacterial and antifungal agents, for example, parabens,chlorobutanol, phenol, ascorbic acid, thimerosal, and the like. In manycases, it will be preferable to include isotonic agents, for example,sugars, sodium chloride, or polyalcohols such as mannitol and sorbitol,in the composition. Prolonged absorption of the injectable compositionsmay be brought about by including in the composition an agent whichdelays absorption, for example, aluminum monostearate or gelatin. In oneembodiment, the pharmaceutically acceptable carrier is not DMSO alone.

In one embodiment, the compositions of the invention are administered tothe patient in dosages that range from one to five times per day ormore. In another embodiment, the compositions of the invention areadministered to the patient in range of dosages that include, but arenot limited to, once every day, every two, days, every three days toonce a week, and once every two weeks. It will be readily apparent toone skilled in the art that the frequency of administration of thevarious combination compositions of the invention will vary fromindividual to individual depending on many factors including, but notlimited to, age, disease or disorder to be treated, gender, overallhealth, and other factors. Thus, the invention should not be construedto be limited to any particular dosage regime and the precise dosage andcomposition to be administered to any patient will be determined by theattending physical taking all other factors about the patient intoaccount.

Compounds of the invention for administration may be in the range offrom about 1 μg to about 10,000 mg, about 20 μg to about 9,500 mg, about40 μg to about 9,000 mg, about 75 μg to about 8,500 mg, about 150 μg toabout 7,500 mg, about 200 μg to about 7,000 mg, about 3050 μg to about6,000 mg, about 500 μg to about 5,000 mg, about 750 μg to about 4,000mg, about 1 mg to about 3,000 mg, about 10 mg to about 2,500 mg, about20 mg to about 2,000 mg, about 25 mg to about 1,500 mg, about 50 mg toabout 1,000 mg, about 75 mg to about 900 mg, about 100 mg to about 800mg, about 250 mg to about 750 mg, about 300 mg to about 600 mg, about400 mg to about 500 mg, and any and all whole or partial incrementstherebetween.

In some embodiments, the dose of a compound of the invention is fromabout 1 mg and about 2,500 mg. In some embodiments, a dose of a compoundof the invention used in compositions described herein is less thanabout 10,000 mg, or less than about 8,000 mg, or less than about 6,000mg, or less than about 5,000 mg, or less than about 3,000 mg, or lessthan about 2,000 mg, or less than about 1,000 mg, or less than about 500mg, or less than about 200 mg, or less than about 50 mg. Similarly, insome embodiments, a dose of a second compound (i.e., a drug used fortreating Parkinson's Disease) as described herein is less than about1,000 mg, or less than about 800 mg, or less than about 600 mg, or lessthan about 500 mg, or less than about 400 mg, or less than about 300 mg,or less than about 200 mg, or less than about 100 mg, or less than about50 mg, or less than about 40 mg, or less than about 30 mg, or less thanabout 25 mg, or less than about 20 mg, or less than about 15 mg, or lessthan about 10 mg, or less than about 5 mg, or less than about 2 mg, orless than about 1 mg, or less than about 0.5 mg, and any and all wholeor partial increments thereof.

In one embodiment, the present invention is directed to a packagedpharmaceutical composition comprising a container holding atherapeutically effective amount of a compound of the invention, aloneor in combination with a second pharmaceutical agent; and instructionsfor using the compound to treat, prevent, or reduce one or more symptomsof LID in a patient.

Formulations may be employed in admixtures with conventional excipients,i.e., pharmaceutically acceptable organic or inorganic carriersubstances suitable for oral, parenteral, nasal, intravenous,subcutaneous, enteral, or any other suitable mode of administration,known to the art. The pharmaceutical preparations may be sterilized andif desired mixed with auxiliary agents, e.g., lubricants, preservatives,stabilizers, wetting agents, emulsifiers, salts for influencing osmoticpressure buffers, coloring, flavoring and/or aromatic substances and thelike. They may also be combined where desired with other active agents,e.g., other analgesic agents.

The term “container” includes any receptacle for holding thepharmaceutical composition. For example, in one embodiment, thecontainer is the packaging that contains the pharmaceutical composition.In other embodiments, the container is not the packaging that containsthe pharmaceutical composition, i.e., the container is a receptacle,such as a box or vial that contains the packaged pharmaceuticalcomposition or unpackaged pharmaceutical composition and theinstructions for use of the pharmaceutical composition. Moreover,packaging techniques are well known in the art. It should be understoodthat the instructions for use of the pharmaceutical composition may becontained on the packaging containing the pharmaceutical composition,and as such the instructions form an increased functional relationshipto the packaged product. However, it should be understood that theinstructions may contain information pertaining to the compound'sability to perform its intended function, e.g., treating, preventing, orreducing a LID in a patient.

Routes of administration of any of the compositions of the inventioninclude oral, nasal, rectal, intravaginal, parenteral, buccal,sublingual or topical. The compounds for use in the invention may beformulated for administration by any suitable route, such as for oral orparenteral, for example, transdermal, transmucosal (e.g., sublingual,lingual, (trans)buccal, (trans)urethral, vaginal (e.g., trans- andperivaginally), (intra)nasal and (trans)rectal), intravesical,intrapulmonary, intraduodenal, intragastrical, intrathecal,subcutaneous, intramuscular, intradermal, intra-arterial, intravenous,intrabronchial, inhalation, and topical administration.

Suitable compositions and dosage forms include, for example, tablets,capsules, caplets, pills, gel caps, troches, dispersions, suspensions,solutions, syrups, granules, beads, transdermal patches, gels, powders,pellets, magmas, lozenges, creams, pastes, plasters, lotions, discs,suppositories, liquid sprays for nasal or oral administration, drypowder or aerosolized formulations for inhalation, compositions andformulations for intravesical administration and the like. It should beunderstood that the formulations and compositions that would be usefulin the present invention are not limited to the particular formulationsand compositions that are described herein.

Oral Administration

For oral application, particularly suitable are tablets, dragees,liquids, drops, suppositories, or capsules, caplets and gelcaps. Thecompositions intended for oral use may be prepared according to anymethod known in the art and such compositions may contain one or moreagents selected from the group consisting of inert, non-toxicpharmaceutically excipients which are suitable for the manufacture oftablets. Such excipients include, for example an inert diluent such aslactose; granulating and disintegrating agents such as cornstarch;binding agents such as starch; and lubricating agents such as magnesiumstearate. The tablets may be uncoated or they may be coated by knowntechniques for elegance or to delay the release of the activeingredients. Formulations for oral use may also be presented as hardgelatin capsules wherein the active ingredient is mixed with an inertdiluent.

For oral administration, the compounds of the invention may be in theform of tablets or capsules prepared by conventional means withpharmaceutically acceptable excipients such as binding agents (e.g.,polyvinylpyrrolidone, hydroxypropylcellulose orhydroxypropylmethylcellulose); fillers (e.g., cornstarch, lactose,microcrystalline cellulose or calcium phosphate); lubricants (e.g.,magnesium stearate, talc, or silica); disintegrates (e.g., sodium starchglycollate); or wetting agents (e.g., sodium lauryl sulphate). Ifdesired, the tablets may be coated using suitable methods and coatingmaterials such as OPADRY™ film coating systems available from Colorcon,West Point, Pa. (e.g., OPADRY™ OY Type, OYC Type, Organic Enteric OY-PType, Aqueous Enteric OY-A Type, OY-PM Type and OPADRY™ White,32K18400). Liquid preparation for oral administration may be in the formof solutions, syrups or suspensions. The liquid preparations may beprepared by conventional means with pharmaceutically acceptableadditives such as suspending agents (e.g., sorbitol syrup, methylcellulose or hydrogenated edible fats); emulsifying agent (e.g.,lecithin or acacia); non-aqueous vehicles (e.g., almond oil, oily estersor ethyl alcohol); and preservatives (e.g., methyl or propyl p-hydroxybenzoates or sorbic acid).

Granulating techniques are well known in the pharmaceutical art formodifying starting powders or other particulate materials of an activeingredient. The powders are typically mixed with a binder material intolarger permanent free-flowing agglomerates or granules referred to as a“granulation.” For example, solvent-using “wet” granulation processesare generally characterized in that the powders are combined with abinder material and moistened with water or an organic solvent underconditions resulting in the formation of a wet granulated mass fromwhich the solvent must then be evaporated.

Melt granulation generally consists in the use of materials that aresolid or semi-solid at room temperature (i.e. having a relatively lowsoftening or melting point range) to promote granulation of powdered orother materials, essentially in the absence of added water or otherliquid solvents. The low melting solids, when heated to a temperature inthe melting point range, liquefy to act as a binder or granulatingmedium. The liquefied solid spreads itself over the surface of powderedmaterials with which it is contacted, and on cooling, forms a solidgranulated mass in which the initial materials are bound together. Theresulting melt granulation may then be provided to a tablet press or beencapsulated for preparing the oral dosage form. Melt granulationimproves the dissolution rate and bioavailability of an active (i.e.drug) by forming a solid dispersion or solid solution.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,169,645 discloses directly compressible wax-containinggranules having improved flow properties. The granules are obtained whenwaxes are admixed in the melt with certain flow improving additives,followed by cooling and granulation of the admixture. In certainembodiments, only the wax itself melts in the melt combination of thewax(es) and additives(s), and in other cases both the wax(es) and theadditives(s) will melt.

The present invention also includes a multi-layer tablet comprising alayer providing for the delayed release of one or more compounds of theinvention, and a further layer providing for the immediate release of amedication for treatment of Parkinson's Disease. Using awax/pH-sensitive polymer mix, a gastric insoluble composition may beobtained in which the active ingredient is entrapped, ensuring itsdelayed release.

Parenteral Administration

For parenteral administration, the compounds of the invention may beformulated for injection or infusion, for example, intravenous,intramuscular or subcutaneous injection or infusion, or foradministration in a bolus dose and/or continuous infusion. Suspensions,solutions or emulsions in an oily or aqueous vehicle, optionallycontaining other formulatory agents such as suspending, stabilizingand/or dispersing agents may be used.

Additional Administration Forms

Additional dosage forms of this invention include dosage forms asdescribed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,340,475, 6,488,962, 6,451,808, 5,972,389,5,582,837, and 5,007,790. Additional dosage forms of this invention alsoinclude dosage forms as described in U.S. Patent Applications Nos.20030147952, 20030104062, 20030104053, 20030044466, 20030039688, and20020051820. Additional dosage forms of this invention also includedosage forms as described in PCT Applications Nos. WO 03/35041, WO03/35040, WO 03/35029, WO 03/35177, WO 03/35039, WO 02/96404, WO02/32416, WO 01/97783, WO 01/56544, WO 01/32217, WO 98/55107, WO98/11879, WO 97/47285, WO 93/18755, and WO 90/11757.

Controlled Release Formulations and Drug Delivery Systems

In certain embodiments, the formulations of the present invention maybe, but are not limited to, short-term, rapid-offset, as well ascontrolled, for example, sustained release, delayed release andpulsatile release formulations.

The term sustained release is used in its conventional sense to refer toa drug formulation that provides for gradual release of a drug over anextended period of time, and that may, although not necessarily, resultin substantially constant blood levels of a drug over an extended timeperiod. The period of time may be as long as a month or more and shouldbe a release which is longer that the same amount of agent administeredin bolus form.

For sustained release, the compounds may be formulated with a suitablepolymer or hydrophobic material which provides sustained releaseproperties to the compounds. As such, the compounds for use the methodof the invention may be administered in the form of microparticles, forexample, by injection or in the form of wafers or discs by implantation.

In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the compounds of theinvention are administered to a patient, alone or in combination withanother pharmaceutical agent, using a sustained release formulation.

The term delayed release is used herein in its conventional sense torefer to a drug formulation that provides for an initial release of thedrug after some delay following drug administration and that mat,although not necessarily, includes a delay of from about 10 minutes upto about 12 hours.

The term pulsatile release is used herein in its conventional sense torefer to a drug formulation that provides release of the drug in such away as to produce pulsed plasma profiles of the drug after drugadministration.

The term immediate release is used in its conventional sense to refer toa drug formulation that provides for release of the drug immediatelyafter drug administration.

As used herein, short-term refers to any period of time up to andincluding about 8 hours, about 7 hours, about 6 hours, about 5 hours,about 4 hours, about 3 hours, about 2 hours, about 1 hour, about 40minutes, about 20 minutes, or about 10 minutes and any or all whole orpartial increments thereof after drug administration after drugadministration.

As used herein, rapid-offset refers to any period of time up to andincluding about 8 hours, about 7 hours, about 6 hours, about 5 hours,about 4 hours, about 3 hours, about 2 hours, about 1 hour, about 40minutes, about 20 minutes, or about 10 minutes, and any and all whole orpartial increments thereof after drug administration.

Dosing

The therapeutically effective amount or dose of a compound of thepresent invention will depend on the age, sex and weight of the patient,the current medical condition of the patient and the progression ofParkinson's Disease in the patient being treated. The skilled artisanwill be able to determine appropriate dosages depending on these andother factors.

A suitable dose of a compound of the present invention may be in therange of from about 0.01 mg to about 5,000 mg per day, such as fromabout 0.1 mg to about 1,000 mg, for example, from about 1 mg to about500 mg, such as about 5 mg to about 250 mg per day. The dose may beadministered in a single dosage or in multiple dosages, for example from1 to 4 or more times per day. When multiple dosages are used, the amountof each dosage may be the same or different. For example, a dose of 1 mgper day may be administered as two 0.5 mg doses, with about a 12-hourinterval between doses.

It is understood that the amount of compound dosed per day may beadministered, in non-limiting examples, every day, every other day,every 2 days, every 3 days, every 4 days, or every 5 days. For example,with every other day administration, a 5 mg per day dose may beinitiated on Monday with a first subsequent 5 mg per day doseadministered on Wednesday, a second subsequent 5 mg per day doseadministered on Friday, and so on.

The compounds for use in the method of the invention may be formulatedin unit dosage form. The term “unit dosage form” refers to physicallydiscrete units suitable as unitary dosage for patients undergoingtreatment, with each unit containing a predetermined quantity of activematerial calculated to produce the desired therapeutic effect,optionally in association with a suitable pharmaceutical carrier. Theunit dosage form may be for a single daily dose or one of multiple dailydoses (e.g., about 1 to 4 or more times per day). When multiple dailydoses are used, the unit dosage form may be the same or different foreach dose.

Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain usingno more than routine experimentation, numerous equivalents to thespecific procedures, embodiments, claims, and examples described herein.Such equivalents were considered to be within the scope of thisinvention and covered by the claims appended hereto. For example, itshould be understood, that modifications in reaction conditions,including but not limited to reaction times, reaction size/volume, andexperimental reagents, such as solvents, catalysts, pressures,atmospheric conditions, e.g., nitrogen atmosphere, andreducing/oxidizing agents, with art-recognized alternatives and using nomore than routine experimentation, are within the scope of the presentapplication.

It is to be understood that wherever values and ranges are providedherein, all values and ranges encompassed by these values and ranges,are meant to be encompassed within the scope of the present invention.Moreover, all values that fall within these ranges, as well as the upperor lower limits of a range of values, are also contemplated by thepresent application.

The following examples further illustrate aspects of the presentinvention. However, they are in no way a limitation of the teachings ordisclosure of the present invention as set forth herein.

EXAMPLES

The invention is now described with reference to the following Examples.These Examples are provided for the purpose of illustration only, andthe invention is not limited to these Examples, but rather encompassesall variations that are evident as a result of the teachings providedherein.

Materials:

Unless otherwise noted, all starting materials and resins were obtainedfrom commercial suppliers and used without purification.

Quinpirole (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.), PD128907 (Tocris,Ellisville, Mo.), 7OH-DPAT (Tocris), pramipexole (Tocris), rotigotine(Tocris), 4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amine (ES609; Asinex, Moscow,Russia) andcis-8-Hydroxy-3-(n-propyl)-1,2,3a,4,5,9b-hexahydro-1H-benz[e]indolehydrobromide (PBZI; Sigma-Aldrich) were dissolved in water and used atindicated concentrations. Sarizotan (Merck KGaA, Gibbstown, N.J.),FAUC73 (Sigma-Aldrich) and 7OH-PIPAT (Tocris) were dissolved in DMSO. A10 mM stock of dopamine (Sigma-Aldrich) was freshly dissolved in 100 mMascorbic acid and used at a final concentration of 100 nM.

Cell Culture:

AtT-20 mouse pituitary cells were grown in Ham's F10 medium with 5% FBS,10% heat-inactivated horse serum, 2 mM glutamine and 50 μg/ml gentamicin(Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). AtT-20 cells stabling expressing thehuman D_(2S), D_(2L), D₃, and D_(4.2) and receptor were maintained inthe above F10 culture media supplemented with 500 μg/ml G418(Invitrogen). For electrophysiological characterization, cells wereplated onto glass coverslips coated with 40 μg/ml poly L-lysine(Sigma-Aldrich). The generation and characterization of the AtT-20 cellsstably expressing various human dopamine receptors have been previouslyreported (Kuzhikandathil & Oxford, 2000, J. Gen. Physiol. 115:697-706;Kuzhikandathil et al., 1998, Mol. Cell Neurosci. 12:390-402;Kuzhikandathil & Bartoszyk, 2006, Neuropharm. 51:873-884; Westrich &Kuzhikandathil, 2007, Biochim. Biophys. Acta-MCR 1773:1747-1758;Kuzhikandathil et al., 2004, Mol. Cell Neurosci. 26:144-155; Westrich etal., 2010, Biochem. Pharmacol. 79:897-907).

Measurement of cAMP:

Cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels were assessed using the cAMP BiotrakEnzymeimmunoassay (EIA) kit (GE Healthcare, Piscataway, N.J., USA) asdescribed previously (Kuzhikandathil & Bartoszyk, 2006, Neuropharm.51:873-884). The cAMP levels in each treated sample were assayed intriplicate and the entire experiment repeated three independent times.

Electrophysiology:

Agonist-activated currents were measured by the whole-cell patch clamptechnique in voltage clamp and current clamp mode as describedpreviously (Kuzhikandathil & Oxford, 2000, J. Gen. Physiol. 115:697-706;Kuzhikandathil et al., 1998, Mol. Cell Neurosci. 12:390-402;Kuzhikandathil & Bartoszyk, 2006, Neuropharm. 51:873-884; Westrich &Kuzhikandathil, 2007, Biochim. Biophys. Acta-MCR 1773:1747-1758;Kuzhikandathil et al., 2004, Mol. Cell Neurosci. 26:144-155; Westrich etal., 2010, Biochem. Pharmacol. 79:897-907). Drug solutions weredelivered to cells via a multi-barreled micropipette array. The currentresponses were normalized to the cell capacitance, to account forvariation in cell size.

Statistics:

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the Holm-Sidak multiple pair-wisecomparison tests and Student's t-test was performed with the SigmaPlot®11 software (SPSS Inc.). Data were considered statistically significantwhen the probability value (P) was less than 0.05.

Computational Modeling (HSB Method):

The HSB protocol for designing small molecule inhibitors to G-proteincoupled receptors has been described (Kortagere & Welsh, 2006, J.Compu.t Aided Mo.l Des. 20(12):789-8026). Briefly, the method involvedcreating a focused library of small molecules derived from commercialvendors. All molecules in the database were converted to the UNITYformat and screened using UNITY module integrated in SYBYL (SYBYL 8.0,Tripos International).

To create a 3D pharmacophore based on the interactions of PBZI in D₃receptor binding site, a homology model of D₃ receptor was created usingthe crystal structure of the beta adrenergic (β2-AR) receptor in complexwith a partial inverse agonist (PDB code: 2RH1) (Cherezov et al., 2007,Science 318(5854):1258-1265) as a template with the homology modelingprogram Modeller (ver 9.4) (Sali et al., 1993, J. Mol. Biol.234(3):779-815; Westrich et al., 2010, Biochem. Pharmacol. 79:897-907;Kortagere et al., 2011, Biochem. Pharmacol. 81(1):157-163). PBZI has afairly rigid conformation owing to its tricyclic structure. Aconformational analysis using stochastic search method adopted in MOEwas utilized to obtain the best conformation of the alkyl tail regionextending from the amine group. All the conformations obtained wereclustered based on energy and a representative member from the mostpopulated cluster was chosen for further optimization using the AM1semi-empirical quantum chemical method adopted in MOE. A similarprocedure was used for other ligands in this study. The optimizedconformations were used for further docking experiments. PBZI was dockedto the 3D structure of the refined D₃ structure using docking programGOLD (ver 4.1) (Jones et al., 1995, J. Mol. Biol. 245(1):43-53). Twentyindependent runs were performed and the docked complexes were scoredusing Goldscore (Jones et al., 1995, J. Mol. Biol. 245(1):43-53),chemscore (Eldridge et al., 1997, J. Comput. Aided Mol. De.s11(5):425-445) and customized scoring scheme (Kortagere & Welsh, 2006,J. Comput. Aided Mol. Des. 20(12):789-802).

To obtain a more realistic conformation of the agonist bound model, themodel was immersed into an explicit water-POPC lipid bilayer-water modelmembrane system using the Desmond module (Kevin et al., 2006,Proceedings of the ACM/IEEE Conference on Supercomputing (SC06), NewYork, N.Y., IEEE) of the Schrodinger suite program. The model membranewas pre-aligned to the β2-AR crystal structure to adopt its orientationto the D₃ receptor-PBZI model. Default conditions for bilayercomposition including those of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions were selected and theentire simulation was performed using the default all atom OPLS forcefield. A four step protocol consisting of routines for pre-relaxation,minimization, heating, equilibration and production run of 3 ns wasfollowed to completely refine the model (Chien et al., 2010, Science330(6007):1091-1115). Throughout the simulations, the interactions ofPBZI with residues from TM3 and TM5 were maintained using low levels ofconstraints. However all constraints were removed during the productionrun to completely relax the ligand in the protein environment. Keyinteractions between PBZI and D₃ receptor, namely salt bridge withAsp110, hydrogen bonded interaction with Ser192, aromatic ringinteractions with His349, hydrophobic interactions with Val111 and otheraromatic residues from TM6 were used to build a four point hybridpharmacophore as shown in FIG. 6C. Electronic libraries ofvendor-available small molecules were screened to identify hits thatcorrespond to the pharmacophore.

Finally, the hits were filtered using Lipinski's Rule of 5 (Lipinski etal., 2001, Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 46(1-3):3-26), blood brain barrier(BBB) penetration (Kortagere et al., 2008, Pharm. Res. 25(8):1836-1845)and off-target screening against Pregnane xenobiotic receptors(Kortagere et al., 2009, Pharm. Res. 26(4):1001-1011) and hERG channels(Chekmarev et al., 2008, Chem. Res. Toxicol. 21(6):1304-1314). Theresulting 290 hits were docked to the binding site of D₃ receptor usingGOLD program and scored using a variety of scoring functions asdescribed previously for docking of PBZI. Fifteen best ranking hits wereobtained from the vendors and functionally evaluated.

Example 1: In Vitro Characterization of Compounds

PBZI and 4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amine were characterized for theirinteractions with dopamine receptors. Both compounds activated G-proteincoupled inward rectifier potassium (GIRK) channels via D₃ dopaminereceptors (FIGS. 2A-2C) and inhibited adenylyl cyclase activity (FIGS.11A-11B). The in vitro functional data for both compounds are shown inTable 1. Of most interest was the observation that unlike traditionalD₂/D₃ receptor agonists, PBZI and 4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amineabolished the tolerance and SRT properties of the D3R (FIGS. 2A-2C).These two compounds represent a new class of D₃ dopamine receptoragonists that abolishes the tolerance and SRT properties of the D₃receptor while being a full agonist.

TABLE 1 Characterization of PBZI & 4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amineeffect on D₂-like receptor signaling function in AtT-20 stable celllines) D_(2S) D_(2L) D₃ D_(4.2) dopamine dopamine dopamine dopaminereceptor receptor receptor receptor PBZI Adenylyl partial full full nocyclase agonist agonist agonist response inhibition (EC₅₀ = 140 nM)(EC₅₀ = 67 nM) (EC₅₀ = 35 nM) GIRK partial full agonist full partialchannel agonist (EC₅₀ ND) agonist agonist activation (EC₅₀ = 53 nM)(EC₅₀ = 30 nM) (EC₅₀ ND) 4-(2-chlorophenyl)- butan-2-amine (ES0609)Adenylyl Partial No response Full Partial cyclase agonist agonistagonist inhibition (EC₅₀ = 2.4 nM) (EC₅₀ = 0.15 nM) (EC₅₀ = 0.82 nM)GIRK Partial Partial Full no response channel agonist agonist agonistactivation (EC₅₀ = ND) (EC₅₀ = ND) (EC₅₀ = 30 nM) ND: not determined

Example 2: Ligand Dependent D₃ Receptor Tolerance and SRT Properties

FIG. 9A illustrates the D₃ dopamine receptor-induced activation ofnative GIRK channels when the receptor is stimulated with the endogenousagonist, dopamine. The tolerance property of D₃ receptor is quantifiedas the ratio of 2^(nd) to 1^(st) agonist-induced response. The D₃receptor tolerance property is also observed in the D₃ receptor-adenylylcyclase and -mitogen activated protein kinase pathways (Kuzhikandathil &Bartoszyk, 2006, Neuropharm. 51:873-884; Westrich & Kuzhikandathil,2007, Biochim. Biophys. Acta-MCR 1773:1747-1758). In addition, FIG. 9Ashows the D₃ receptor SRT property, which is the delayed termination ofthe agonist-induced response after agonist removal. Tolerant D₃ receptoradopts a distinct conformation (Westrich et al., 2010, Biochem.Pharmacol. 79:897-907), suggesting that tolerance and SRT propertiesmight be modulated by functionally-selective agonists that alter thisdistinct conformational state. To identify agonists that might modulateD₃ receptor tolerance and SRT properties, ten distinct agonists werescreened for their ability to induce tolerance and SRT, using the D₃receptor-GIRK channel signaling pathway as an assay. The selectedagonists included the endogenous ligand dopamine, ligands that exhibitedselectivity for D₃, and compounds used clinically to treat Parkinson'sdisease. The results in FIG. 9C suggest that, while most agonistsinduced tolerance, two agonists, cis-8OH-PBZI and FAUC73, abolished thetolerance property. Interestingly, PD128907 induced enhanced tolerancethat was significantly different than the other agonists.

FIGS. 2A and 2C illustrate representative voltage clamp recordings ofAtT-20 cells stably expressing the human D₃ dopamine receptor andtreated with agonists that either induce tolerance or do not inducetolerance. PBZI (FIG. 2A) and FAUC73 (FIG. 2C) abolished both toleranceand SRT properties; however in the same cell, quinpirole (FIG. 2A) orPD128907 (FIG. 2C) induced severe tolerance and SRT. Control experimentsin parental AtT-20 cells as well as pretreatment with D₂/D₃ antagonist,eticlopride (100 nM), showed that the agonistic effect of PBZI andFAUC73 are specific for D₃ receptors. Furthermore, the ability toabolish tolerance and SRT was not concentration dependent-PBZI tested atdoses from 100 nM to 10 μM did not induce tolerance. Together, theseresults suggest that the D₃ receptor tolerance and SRT properties areligand-dependent. Of the two tolerance- and SRT-abolishing compounds,PBZI is water soluble and more extensively characterized, in vitro andin vivo.

Example 3: In Vivo Characterization of Compounds: In Vivo BehavioralResponse

To determine the in vivo behavioral effect of the novel class of D₃dopamine receptor agonists, the effects of PBZI and a classicaltolerance and SRT inducing D₃ dopamine receptor agonist, PD128907((4aR,10bR)-3,4a,4,10b-tetrahydro-4-propyl-2H,5H-[1]benzopyrano-[4,3-b]-1,4-oxazin-9-olhydrochloride), were compared. FIGS. 12A-12B illustrate that PD128907elicited a biphasic locomotor response in a novel open field activitytest. In contrast, PBZI (which does not elicit tolerance and SRT)induced only a monophasic locomotor response. This novel result thusidentified a potential behavioral screen for the new class of D₃dopamine receptor agonist described herein.

Example 4: In Vivo Characterization of Compounds: Intrastriatal 6-OHDARat Parkinson's Disease Model

In order to further evaluate the therapeutic potential of the novelclass of D₃ receptor agonists, the hypothesis that up regulation of D₃receptor in the striatum contributes to the development oflevodopa-induced dyskinesia (LID) in Parkinson's disease was tested. Theunilateral intrastriatal 6-OHDA lesioned rat model of Parkinson'sDisease has been extensively characterized and widely used to testneuroprotective and transplantation strategies to treat Parkinson'sDisease (Winkler et al., 2002, Neurobiol. Dis. 10(2):165-86). Thepartial and slowly progressing degeneration of the nigral dopamineneurons and the concomitant development of motor deficits in this ratParkinson's Disease model appeared to mimic the progressivedeterioration observed in patients suffering from Parkinson's Disease(Winkler et al., 2002, Neurobiol. Dis. 10(2):165-86). Of particularinterest is the development of LID in this animal model, wherein themovements are similar to the abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs) seenclinically.

The intrastriatal 6-OHDA rat Parkinson's Disease model described byWinkler and co-workers was used to test the effect of PBZI and ES0609 onLID (Winkler et al., 2002, Neurobiol. Dis. 10(2):165-86). To determineAIMs score, the rats were placed in transparent glass cylinder andrecorded using a digital video recorder. 6-OHDA lesioned animals developLID approximately 10 days after initiation of the chronic levodopatreatment. The ability of PBZI or 4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amine toreduce the levodopa-induced AIMs score was determined by administeringthe novel D₃ receptor agonists 10 minutes prior to levodopaadministration on day 10, 17 and 24 after initiation of the chroniclevodopa administration. The stepping test was also performed on thesedays to assess the effect of these new agonists on the ability oflevodopa to improve the stepping deficit in the lesioned animals.

Example 5: In Vivo Characterization of Compounds: Reduction ofDyskinesia

The ability of a tolerance inducing (PD128907) and the non-toleranceinducing D₃ receptor agonists (PBZI or 4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amine)to reduce dyskinesia associated with chronic levodopa treatment wastested in the rat model. Control (saline), PD128907 (0.1 mg/kg, sc),PBZI (17 mg/kg, sc) or 4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amine (20 mg/kg) wereadministered ten minutes before levodopa treatment. FIG. 13A illustratesthe effect of control, PD128907 (a tolerance inducing D₂/D₃ agonist) andPBZI (a non tolerance inducing D₃/D₃ agonist) on the total AIMs score(includes locomotor, axial, limb and orolingual) over time of a day 17(chronic L-DOPA phase) lesioned animal. Interestingly, theadministration of PD128907 to the lesioned animals in of itself induceddyskinesia, even before levodopa administration. This is consistent withclinical reports that LID may also be elicited by dopamine receptoragonists used in the treatment of Parkinson's Disease.

The results in FIG. 13A suggest that PBZI itself did not inducedyskinesia, and delayed the onset of levodopa induced dyskinesia. Thecumulative data obtained by calculating the area under the curve in FIG.13B illustrates that PBZI significantly reduces (by ˜300%) the totalintegrated AIMs score. Stepping test data obtained duringco-administration of PBZI and levodopa suggest that PBZI did notattenuate the beneficial effect of levodopa on bradykinesia/akinesia.These results suggest that PBZI and its analogs are promising candidatesfor preclinical development as new therapeutics for the treatment of LIDin Parkinson's disease.

Example 6: In Vivo Characterization of Compounds: Locomotor Behavior inMice

The effects of PBZI on locomotor behavior in Balb/c mice were evaluated.The specific objectives of this experiment were: (a) to determinewhether PBZI would induce a decrease in locomotion in Balb/c mice; (b)to evaluate PBZI's effects over a longer test session; and (c) todetermine if PD128907 elicited a biphasic locomotor effect in Balb/cmice.

A total of 12 young adult, male Balb/c mice were obtained form CharlesRiver, Inc. (Wilmington, Mass.), and housed in groups of four instandard cages. The animals were maintained on a 12 hour light/12 hourdark cycle and permitted ad lib access to food and water. Experimentswere conducted during the animal's light phase. The strain of mouse wasselected based on the previous work evaluating the relationship betweendopaminergic compounds and motor activity in Balb/c mice. The micereceived a single injection of PBZI (0, 1, or 10 mg/kg, sc), andimmediately thereafter were individually placed into a test arena(TruScan arena, Coulbourn Instruments Inc.) for 2-hr in normalillumination. For PD128907, separate groups of Balb/c mice receivedsubcutaneous injections of saline (n=4) or 0.05 or 0.4 mg/kg PD128907(n=4, for each). Locomotion (‘distance traveled’) scores ofdrug-injected animals were collapsed across 10-min intervals and forcomparison purposes were normalized to saline injected animals (FIG.12A). The experiment was conducted on three separate occasions.Locomotion varied significantly as a function of a Dose X Timeinteraction (F (2,4)=5.40, p=0.002;). Newman-Keuls multiple (α=0.05) ofthe main effects comprising this interaction revealed that locomotionwas significantly reduced (by approximately 90%) within 20-min in micereceiving 10 mg/kg of PBZI compared with mice in the other groups. Offurther importance, there were no between-group differences during theother time intervals. This effect persisted for 40-min post-injection inBalb/c mice.

On the contrary, PD128907, as reported previously for other strains ofmice, elicited a biphasic effect in Balb/c mice. A hypoactivity wasobserved in the first 40-min post-injection followed by hyperactivityduring the 70 to 110 minute post-injection period (FIG. 12B). Thebiphasic effect of PD128907 was observed at a dose of 0.05 mg/kg orhigher. While the lower dose of PD128907 (0.05 mg/kg) elicitedhypoactivity of a shorter duration (20 minutes), it elicited the sameduration and magnitude of hyperactivity. The difference in dose requiredto elicit hypoactivity is likely due to the differences in D₃ dopaminereceptor binding affinity for PBZI (K_(i)=22 nM) and PD128907 (K_(i)=2.3nM). With both PBZI and PD128907, the locomotor activity returned tocontrol saline levels by 120 minutes post-injection. These resultsclearly demonstrate that agonists that induce D₃ receptor tolerance(PD128907) elicit a biphasic locomotor response. However, agonists thatdo not induce D₃ receptor tolerance (PBZI) elicit a monophasichypoactive locomotor response.

Example 7: Effect of D₃ Receptor Signaling Properties on CellularFunction and Signaling Pathways

The stably-expressed D₃ receptor couples to endogenous GIRK channels inAtT-20 neuroendocrine cells and modulates spontaneous action potentialsand secretion (Kuzhikandathil & Oxford, 1999, J. Neurosci.19(5):1698-1707; Kuzhikandathil & Oxford, 2000, J. Gen. Physiol.115:697-706; Kuzhikandathil et al., 1998, Mol. Cell Neurosci.12:390-402). Activation of the stably expressed human D₃ dopaminereceptor by dopamine inhibited spontaneous action potentials during thefirst application, but not upon subsequent applications (FIG. 16A). Incontrast, the activation of the D₃ receptor by the tolerance and SRTabolishing agonist, PBZI, inhibited spontaneous action potentials duringthe first application and subsequent applications (FIG. 16B). Thisresult suggests that the modulation of neuronal firing by D₃ receptoragonists that induce tolerance is very different from those that do notinduce tolerance. The latter class of agonists converts the D₃ receptorto the functional equivalent of a D₂ receptor.

Example 8: Identification of a Novel Agonist that does not InduceTolerance and SRT by Using a D3 Receptor-PBZI Pharmacophore Model

The results in FIGS. 9C, 2A and 2C showed that PD128907 induces severetolerance and SRT; interestingly, PBZI, which does not induce toleranceand SRT shares a few core structural elements with PD128907 (FIGS.6A-6D). The stark difference in the ability of PD128907 and PBZI toinduce tolerance and SRT suggested that comparative modeling studies ofthese compounds docked in the D₃ receptor homology model might yieldinformation to develop a pharmacophore model to screen for additionalcompounds that abolish tolerance and SRT properties.

To further understand the difference in signaling properties induced byPD128907 and PBZI, they were docked to the binding site of the D₃receptor. The docking was defined by salt bridge interactions of theprotonatable amine with Asp110, hydrogen bond interactions withconserved serine residues in transmembrane (TM) 5 and aromaticinteractions with residues from TM6 and TM7. The ligand bound complexeswere minimized and further refined using molecular dynamics (MD)simulations. A structural super positioning of the refined complexesyielded a root mean square deviation (rmsd) of 3.5 Å with well-markeddifferences in the TM bundle as well as the loop regions, leading to thehypothesis that each of these agonists elicit a unique conformationalchange in the receptor as previously observed for quinpirole. PD128907forms a conserved salt bridge with Asp110, hydrogen bonds with Ser193 onTM5 and aromatic interactions with His349, Trp342 and Tyr373. Since thetetrahydropyran ring of PD128907 is more electronegative than theequivalent hexahydrobenzo group of PBZI, the latter probably has fewerinteractions with the hydrophobic groups in TM3 as well as otheraromatic residues in TM6. PBZI forms the conserved salt bridge withAsp110, hydrogen bonds with Ser192 in TM5 and has favorable pi-piinteractions with His349 and Phe345. In addition, due to the hydrophobicnature of hexahydrobenzo group, it forms favorable interactions withVal111 in TM3, Phe197 in TM5, Trp342 in TM6 and Tyr373 in TM7.

In order to verify if these interactions of PBZI with the D₃ receptorwere significant, a three dimensional pharmacophore incorporating thehydrophobic elements, salt bridge interaction and aromatic-piinteractions was designed. Using this three dimensional pharmacophore, athree million compound library was screened using the HSB method forsmall molecules that could mimic the pharmacophore features of PBZI. Thehits from the screen were then subjected to filtering schemes thatinclude Lipinski's drug-like properties, Pregnane xenobiotic receptoractivation and more importantly blood brain barrier (BBB) penetration.The 290 hits that resulted from the filtering schemes were docked to thebinding site of D3 receptor and scored using a variety of scoringschemes. The scoring schemes were customized to rank only thosemolecules that formed a salt bridge interaction with Asp110 and hadfavorable interactions with aromatic cluster formed by TM5, TM6 and TM7.

The fifteen compounds identified by the HSB in silico screen wereevaluated for their ability to activate D3 receptors and induce GIRKresponse, tolerance and SRT. The functional studies identified a novelD₃ receptor agonist, ES609 (4-(2-chlorophenyl)-butan-2-amine), which didnot induce tolerance and SRT. FIGS. 17A-17D show representative tracesand cumulative data for ES609 and suggests that, as in the case of PBZIand FAUC73, ES609 also abolishes D3 receptor tolerance and SRTproperties (FIG. 17A). Control experiments showed that ES 609 did notelicit GIRK currents in parental AtT-20 cells (FIG. 17B) and thecurrents induced in AtT-20 cells stably expressing the D3 receptor wereblocked by pretreatment with the antagonist, eticlopride. Dockingexperiments confirmed that ES609 follows the interaction pattern ofPBZI, with favorable pi-stacking interactions with His349 and saltbridge with Asp110 (FIG. 6A). Further refinement of the D3receptor-ES609 complex using MD simulation studies showed that ES609elicits a similar conformation as that of PBZI. ES609-bound D3 receptorstructure super positioned on to the PBZI-bound D3 receptor structurewith a rmsd of 1.2{acute over (Å)} (FIG. 7A). The results show thatwhile ES609 shares the same core structure as that of dopamine (FIG.6D), its interaction pattern as well as the conformational change itelicits in the D₃ receptor are similar to those of PBZI.

Example 9: Functional Characterization of PBZI and ES609

To compare the functional effects of the new class of D₃ receptoragonists, PBZI (Table 2) and ES609 (Table 3) were tested on AtT-20 cellsstably expressing human D₃, D_(2S), D_(2L) or D_(4.2). Functionalefficacy was determined by assessing the ability of PBZI and ES609 toinhibit adenylyl cyclase or activate GIRK channels coupled to these“D₂-like” dopamine receptors. The EC₅₀ values of PBZI and ES609 forinhibiting adenylyl cyclase and activating GIRK channels were in therange of 0.2 nM to 30 nM for D₃ receptors. By comparing to responseselicited by a saturating concentration (300 nM) of the full agonist,quinpirole, the results showed that PBZI and ES609 are full agonists atD₃ receptors in both the adenylyl cyclase and GIRK channel assays. Incontrast, both compounds were partial agonists at the D_(2S) dopaminereceptor. At D_(2L) dopamine receptors, PBZI was a full agonist in bothassays; in contrast, ES609 did not elicit any response in the adenylylcyclase assay and was a partial agonist in the GIRK channel assay. AtD_(4.2) dopamine receptors, PBZI elicited no response and ES609 was apartial agonist in the adenylyl cyclase assay. In the GIRK channelassay, PBZI was a partial agonist at D4.2 receptors, while ES609elicited no response. Together these results suggested that both PBZIand ES609, are full agonists at D₃ receptor, and were either partialagonists or elicited no responses at other D₂-like dopamine receptors.

TABLE 2 Cis-8OH-PBZI induced inhibition of adenylyl cyclase andactivation of GIRK channels in AtT-20 cells stably expressing theindividual dopamine receptor subtypes Adenylyl cyclase GIRK channelinhibition activation Adenylyl Ratio of PBZI GIRK Ratio of PBZI D₂-likecyclase to quinpirole channel to quinpirole dopamine inhibition responseactivation response receptors EC₅₀ (nM) (at 300 nM) EC₅₀ (nM) (at 300nM) D_(2S) >150 0.29* 53 ± 19.8 0.48* D_(2L) 67 ± 15  0.83 ND 0.75 D₃ 35± 2.8 0.97 29 ± 16.1 1.3 D_(4.2) No response 0^(†) ND 0.35* *P < 0.05,statistically significant, Student's t-test. ^(†)no adenylyl cyclaseinhibition in the presence of 300 nM PBZI; but 300 nM quinpirole elicits~70% inhibition. ND—not determined; a full dose-response experiment todetermine EC₅₀ was not performed; data was obtained for a singleconcentration (300 nM) of PBZI. ± Standard Error of Mean.

TABLE 3 ES609 induced inhibition of adenylyl cyclase and activation ofGIRK channels in AtT-20 cells stably expressing the individual dopaminereceptor subtypes Adenylyl cyclase GIRK channel inhibition activationAdenylyl Ratio of ES609 GIRK Ratio of ES609 D₂-like cyclase toquinpirole channel to quinpirole dopamine inhibition response activationresponse receptors EC₅₀ (nM) (at 300 nM) EC₅₀ (nM) (at 300 nM) D_(2S)2.4 ± 0.2 0.29* ND 0.30* D_(2L) No response 0^(†) ND 0.32* D₃ 0.15 ±0.06 0.71 30 ± 7.7 0.86 D_(4.2) 0.82 ± 0.3  0.60* No response 0^(††) *P< 0.05, statistically significant, Student's t-test. ^(†)no adenylylcyclase inhibition in the presence of 300 nM ES609; but 300 nMquinpirole elicits ~80% inhibition. ^(††)300 nM ES609 elicits no GIRKresponse; but, 300 nM quinpirole elicits a full GIRK response. ND—notdetermined; a full dose-response experiment to determine EC₅₀ was notperformed; data was obtained for a single concentration (300 nM) ofES609. ± Standard Error of Mean.

The results described herein demonstrate that the D₃ receptor toleranceand SRT properties are ligand-dependent and help identify a new class ofatypical D₃ receptor agonists that do not induce these properties. PBZI,a water soluble compound that is structurally similar to PD128907 butdoes not induce tolerance and SRT, was identified. Previous bindingstudies have shown that for D₂-like receptors, PBZI has a Ki of 27 nMfor D₃, 1800 nM for D_(2S) and 280 nM for D_(4.2) (Scheideler et al.,1997, Eur. J. Pharmacol. 339(2-3):261-270). Binding at D₁-like receptorsand a panel of other neurotransmitter receptors, ion channels andtransporters were negligible. Thus PBZI exhibited D₃ receptorselectivity in receptor binding assay. This is consistent with theresult from the functional studies, which shows that PBZI is a fullagonist at D₃ receptors and a partial agonist at the D2S dopaminereceptors (Table 2). The partial agonistic effect at D_(2S) receptors isalso consistent with previous in vitro results. In vivo, animalsadministered PBZI show specific increases in c-fos expression in medialprefrontal cortex and the shell region of nucleus accumbens, regionswith high D3 receptor expression. Effect of PBZI on D_(2L) receptors hadnot been previously determined. The results described herein show thatPBZI is a full agonist at the D_(2L) dopamine receptor (Table 2). Basedon the pre- and postsynaptic location of D2S and D2L receptors,respectively, PBZI would be predicted to primarily have postsynapticeffects. This is supported by previous in vivo studies as well(Fink-Jensen et al., 1998, Eur. J. Pharmacol. 342(2-3):153-161).

The classical D₂-like receptor agonist, PD128907, is selective for D₃receptor with a Ki of 0.4 nM for D₃, 202 nM for D_(2S) and 114 nM forD_(4.2) (Scheideler et al., 1997, Eur. J. Pharmacol. 339(2-3):261-270);however the studies described herein showed that it induces severetolerance and SRT. Interestingly, the chemical structure of PD128907 issimilar to PBZI. Although PD128907 and PBZI share a similar corestructure and function as full agonists at D₃ receptor, they havedramatically different effects on the tolerance and SRT properties. Theresults described herein suggest that the functional differences betweenPBZI and PD128907 are due to the different conformation these agonistsinduce in the D₃ receptor. The majority of these conformational changesare confined to the regions closest to the binding site andextracellular loop (EC) 2 loop region. Comparison of the PBZI- andPD128907-bound structures suggests that the maximum shift occurs in TM4,which is coupled with large movements of EC2. In addition, theconformational changes are also observed in intracellular loop (IC) 2which has previously shown to be important for mediating the toleranceproperty (Westrich et al., 2010, Biochem. Pharmacol. 79:897-907). Othersignificant conformational changes include a downward shift along thelength of the TM6 helix and an unwinding of the first turn of the TM3helix in the PD128907-bound form.

In this study, by carefully monitoring the nature of interactions andthe conformational effects produced by the binding of PBZI and PD128907in computational models, a novel atypical D3 receptor agonist, ES609,which exhibits selectivity and abolishes the tolerance and SRTproperties, was designed. The HSB method may be used to identifyadditional atypical D₃ receptor agonists. ES609 was designed based onthe nature of interactions of PBZI with D₃ receptor. The hypothesis wasto increase the strength of the pi-pi interactions with the aromaticcore by introducing electron withdrawing groups on the ligand. Thus thehalogen group at ortho position in ES609 was highly suitable to thedesign, along with the added hydrophobicity proximal to the protonatableamine (FIG. 6D). The latter strengthened the interactions withhydrophobic groups on TM3 similar to the interactions of FAUC73 withresidues in TM3. His349 may play a major role in promoting ligand biasedsignaling in D2L receptor. These results are consistent with thefindings that strengthening the pi-pi interactions with His349 and othermembers of the aromatic core may contribute favorably to the atypicalproperties of PBZI, FAUC73 and ES609. Studies are geared towardsunderstanding the specific role of EC2 and TM4 in promoting functionalselectivity and to further understand the completestructure-activity-relationship of these atypical agonists in complexwith D₃ receptor. Functionally, ES609 and PBZI have similar efficacy foractivating D₃ receptor coupled signal transduction pathways. However incontrast to PBZI, ES609 is either a partial agonist or elicits noresponse at other D₂-like receptors (D_(2S), D_(2L) and D_(4.2)) whentested in two different signaling pathways. The selectivity exhibited byES609 suggests that its structure could serve as a template fordesigning future selective D3 receptor agonists. The functional affinityof ES609, defined by it EC₅₀, is similar to other D₂-like dopaminereceptor agonists in the two signaling pathways that we studied.Furthermore, its small molecular weight and water solubility makes itideally suited for in vivo studies. Given that PBZI and ES609 havesimilar signaling properties in vitro, they are expected to have asimilar effect in vivo.

The new class of atypical D₃ receptor agonists described here representsa novel variation to the concept of functional selectivity.Traditionally, functional selectivity is ascribed to the ability ofdifferent ligands to elicit varying responses in different signaltransduction pathways coupled to the same receptor. The ability ofligands to activate different pathways coupled to the same receptor todifferent degree is due to the different conformations that the ligandengenders in the receptor. Given that the D₃ receptor tolerance and SRTproperties are determined by distinct conformations states, theidentification of ligands that alters these conformation states ispredicted to modulate the two properties. Consistent with thisprediction, in this study a group of ligands that alter the two D3receptor properties was identified. The results described hereinindicate that the functional selectivity concept may not be limited toselective activation of different pathways coupled to the same receptorbut could also be expanded to include ligands that modulate thesignaling properties in a single pathway. If these properties spanmultiple signaling pathways, as is the case here, ectopic expression oralterations in these specific properties could underlie the pathology ofvarious disorders. In this context, these receptor properties,exemplified by the tolerance and SRT properties of the D3 receptor,might represent a novel drug target. The studies described herein allowthe identification of a new class of agonists that specifically targetthese two D₃ receptor signaling properties.

The ectopic expression of D₃ receptor tolerance and SRT properties inthe striatum of animals with levodopa-induced dyskinesia has beenproposed to contribute to the dyskinetic behavior. The atypical D₃receptor agonists by abolishing tolerance and SRT might improve thelevodopa-induced dyskinetic symptoms. Changes in D₃ receptor expressiontaken in the context of tolerance and SRT properties might provideexplanations for some of the behavioral phenotypes observed inneurological disorders such as schizophrenia, psychosis, chronic cocaineuse, stress, and depression. The ectopic expression changes of D₃receptor likely affects the ratio of D₃/D₂ receptor expression in manyof these disorders, leading to the observed pathology. The new class ofatypical D₃ receptor agonists described here, by converting the D₃receptor signaling to functional equivalent of a D₂ receptor, mightprovide a novel therapeutic approach to treat these disorders.

The disclosures of each and every patent, patent application, andpublication cited herein are hereby incorporated herein by reference intheir entirety.

While the invention has been disclosed with reference to specificembodiments, it is apparent that other embodiments and variations ofthis invention may be devised by others skilled in the art withoutdeparting from the true spirit and scope of the invention. The appendedclaims are intended to be construed to include all such embodiments andequivalent variations.

What is claimed is:
 1. A pharmaceutical composition comprising at leastone pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and at least one compound offormula (I):

wherein: R¹ is selected from the group consisting of H and halo, whereinR¹ is ortho to the

 substituent; R² is selected from the group consisting of H and halo,wherein R² is para to the

 substituent; with the proviso that R¹ and R² are not simultaneously H;R³ is selected from the group consisting of H, cyano, halo, nitro, C₁₋₆alkyl, heteroalkyl, carboxy, alkylcarboxy, formyl, and alkyl-carbonyl;R⁴ is selected from the group consisting of H and C₁₋₃ alkyl; R⁵ isselected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₃ alkyl, substituted C₁₋₃alkyl, and heteroalkyl; and, n is 2; or a pharmaceutically acceptablesalt thereof.
 2. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein R¹is halo and R² is H, halo.
 3. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1,wherein R¹ is H and R² is halo.
 4. The pharmaceutical composition ofclaim 1, wherein R³ is H.